…wave. The whole value of the investigation lies in the ratio between the number of atrial and ventricular complexes — more atrial than ventricular complexes, the…

…fibre rich and bioactive foods, including fruits, non starchy vegetables, beans, whole grains, nuts and seeds, yogurt, seafood and plant oils. They contain less refined…

…that these parameters are highly interdependent and rather complex. Indeed, myocardial mechanics constitute a whole research field. Cardiac function is also dependent on circulatory, pulmonary…

…to alteplase and is simpler to administer, since the whole dose is given as a bolus [1,2]. In a meta analysis of three phase…

…new event. Administration Ticagrelor can be administered with or without food. For patients who cannot swallow the tablets whole, they can be crushed, mixed in…

…is complemented by population level interventions. Population strategies aim to shift risk across the whole community through healthier environmental defaults, whereas individual level prevention focuses…

…antibiotics are the treatment. Ultrasound shows the abscess as a hypoechoic or heterogeneous area whose contents move under pressure; cellulitis instead gives a diffuse oedematous…

…ventilation–perfusion matching, increased physiological dead space and the Haldane effect. It is therefore misleading to explain the whole phenomenon as abolition of the patie

…nutrition, drugs and fluid balance. Fluid administration can dilute the creatinine and mask the deterioration, while dehydration can concentrate it. In older, malnourished, amputee or…

…A circumferential cast in a fresh injury, before surgery, or while swelling is progressing. Take care in impaired sensation (neuropathy, spinal cord injury) — the patient…

…leaves no specimen . That makes the choice of lesion the critical point: never freeze anything whose diagnosis you have not established. Indications Lesion Freeze time…

…Procedure Intramuscular — deltoid 1. Expose the whole shoulder; rolling up a sleeve creates a constriction that distorts the anatomy and tempts the operator to inject…

…slowly, and every additional length of tubing, every tap and every filter reduces the flow further — it is the whole system, not just the cannula…

…specimen gently with a needle tip or fine forceps applied to its edge , not by gripping across the whole biopsy, and cut the base w

…2. Insert the core temperature probe and connect it to the feedback loop of the cooling device. Without continuous measurement the whole treatment is blin

…Cycle ergometer is preferred in Europe, while treadmill testing is predominant in the United States. Treadmill and cycle ergometer both have their advantages and disadvantages…

…regadenoson, and dobutamine. Dobutamine increases myocardial oxygen demand, while dipyridamole, adenosine, and regadenoson create blood flow disparities between healthy and diseased coronary arteries, allowing ischemia…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Introduction Cardiovascular disease becomes increasingly prevalent with advancing age, while its clinical expression and management become progressively more complex. Older adults, often…

…performed during advanced cardiovascular life support (ACLS). While basic life support (BLS) can be delivered by virtually anyone, advanced cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ACLS) is provided by…

…of free air in the thoracic cavity. While this can occasionally be benign and manifest even in healthy individuals, a tension pneumothorax arises when the…

…problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been reduced by approximately 50% during the past few decades, the…

…problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been reduced by approximately 50% during the past few decades, the…

…is an emergency. Infection can progress rapidly, while the typical local signs of inflammation may be faint or absent. Take cultures immediately, but never let…

…and Pathophysiology Angina with non obstructive coronary arteries (ANOCA) describes anginal symptoms in patients whose epicardial coronary arteries are normal or show no obstructive disease…

…a distinct disease. It identifies patients whose blood pressure remains uncontrolled despite intensive antihypertensive treatment and who therefore require assessment for pseudo resistance, secondary hypertension…

…morphology and provides material for flow cytometry and genetics, while the biopsy shows marrow architecture and cellularity. What usually ruins the examination is not the…

…litre that has accumulated slowly can be asymptomatic, while 150 mL collected over an hour causes tamponade. The indication rests on the clinical picture together…

…action • Systemic Dopamine 1 (D1) receptor agonist. • Lowers blood pressure while maintaining or increasing kidney perfusion. Effects Dopamine 1 receptor agonists lower systemic blood pressure…

…crisis. Mechanism of action Phentolamine is a non selective alpha adrenergic blocker. Phentolamine reduces blood pressure while increasing catecholamine activity. Effects Primarily causes afterload reduction…

…rather similar within a drug class. While the risk of TdP is well defined for many of these agents, many are classified as QT prolonging…

…CCS) is directed primarily at reducing myocardial ischaemia and relieving anginal symptoms, while maintaining tolerability and adherence. Selection should be individualized according to blood pressure…

…typically exceeding 200 beats per minute. While ECG appearances with flutter like patterns are predominantly caused by macroreentrant circuits, microreentry remains a possible alternative mechanism…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…which a patient performs progressively increasing external work, usually on a treadmill, while symptoms, a 12 lead ECG, heart rate and blood pressure are monitored…

…long term control. The treatment objective is individualized blood pressure reduction sufficient to reduce cardiovascular risk while preserving tolerability and daily function. Decisions should incorporate…

…and a high probability of unstable angina (UA), and patients whose initial findings are less definitive. The defining electrocardiographic feature is the absence of persistent…

…common in patients with inferoposterior left ventricular infarction, while infarction confined predominantly to the right ventricle is rare. The clinical spectrum extends from limited right…

…increases. This results in increased left ventricular load, while simultaneously affecting systemic perfusion. Aortic stenosis is a serious condition with poor long term outcomes. Patients…

…pulseless electrical activity (PEA) as the initial rhythm, while the remainder manifest ventricular fibrillation (VF) or asystole ( Ebo et al ). Clinical manifestations of anaphylaxis Nervousness…

…the underlying mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias. While a detailed understanding of these mechanisms is not essential for all clinicians, it is reasonable to acquire an…

…of atherosclerotic plaques [1] . While stable plaques are characterized by a thick fibrous cap and a small lipid core, the pathophysiology of Acute Coronary Syndromes…

…the aim should be a calm, mildly somnolent but rousable patient, while ventilation, circulation and underlying disease are monitored [3]. The management of complicated withdrawal…

…in the entire chain. In massive haemorrhage a second problem is added: transfusion saves no one whose bleeding is not stopped, and it is the…

…off. The defibrillator finds no stable R wave, and in sync mode no shock at all is then delivered while the patient deteriorates. Indications Emergency…

…release. In cardiac arrest with suspected hyperkalaemia, advanced life support is followed while the hyperkalaemia is treated. Calcium chloride is then usually the first choice…

…always, including while fasting. Many with type 2 Mealtime insulin (rapid acting) Covers the carbohydrate in the meal Anyone who is eating Correction dose (rapid…

…saturation, chest movement and a blood gas. Ventilate by mask in opioid induced respiratory depression while naloxone is prepared C Pulse, blood pressure, peripheral perfusion…

…blocker, a calcium channel blocker or digitalis, while awaiting the antidote and specific treatment. Bradyasystole during and after cardiac arrest with persisting electrical activity. Overdrive…

…and vascular resistance. Advantages of measuring MAP over systolic blood pressure While systolic blood pressure (SBP) indicates the maximum pressure during heart contraction, it does…

…often recommended for PCI, while those with high scores (≥33) are typically advised to undergo CABG due to better long term outcomes. Intermediate scores (23…

…inhibitor produces dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT), while treatment with one antiplatelet drug constitutes single antiplatelet therapy (SAPT). The benefit of antiplatelet therapy must always be…

…based approach because cardiovascular benefit from blood pressure reduction may also occur in selected people whose pressure is elevated but below the conventional hypertension threshold…

…decades. Intimal thickening may be present during the second and third decades of life, while clinical manifestations commonly emerge much later. Despite this prolonged course…

…progressive increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP), while diastolic blood pressure (DBP) rises less steeply and may remain stable or decline later in life. Consequently…

…Exercise training can reverse deconditioning and increase functional capacity, while risk factor treatment and lifestyle modification reduce the burden of recurrent coronary risk. Nutritional counselling…

…LVEF ≥50%). Patients with HFmrEF may represent individuals whose LVEF has improved from below 40% or has declined from at least 50%. This distinction is…

…renal disease are bidirectionally related: hypertension accelerates CKD progression, while impaired renal function further increases blood pressure. Non traditional cardiovascular mechanisms include: Uraemia associated inflammation…

…lesion that appears moderate may be functionally important, while an anatomically severe lesion may not identify the patient most likely to benefit from intervention. Conversely…

…descriptions report rates of approximately 5–10%, while fewer than 5% of otherwise normal angiograms demonstrate bridging. The wide range reflects differences in ascertainment and…

…by rest or nitroglycerin [4], [6]. Presentation Nuances: While typical angina is defined by these characteristics, the presentation can be highly variable, particularly in females…