Reference values

BMI, waist circumference and body composition — what the thresholds mean and where they do not apply.

Classification, measurement technique and the thresholds that separate office readings from home measurement and 24-hour recording.

Pressures, flows and resistances — normal values at right heart catheterisation, on echocardiography and at the bedside.

Reference ranges for the tests that are ordered most often, together with the pitfalls that make a value within the range wrong all the same.

A systematic 8-step method for ECG interpretation in adults: what to check, normal values and differential diagnoses at each step.

Normal values for intervals, axis and amplitudes — and the thresholds at which a deviation has consequences.

Reference values for the aorta, the ventricles, the atria and the valves, and the Doppler-based grading of valvular heart disease.

Ventilation, haemodynamics, neurology and nutrition — target values and thresholds at the bedside in the intensive care unit.

Transaminases, cholestatic markers and measures of synthetic function — which pattern suggests what, and which tests actually measure liver function.

Spirometry, blood gases and the thresholds that separate obstruction from restriction and type 1 from type 2 respiratory failure.

Reference values for heart rate, intervals and amplitudes from the newborn to the age of 16, after Davignon and Rijnbeek.

eGFR stages, albuminuria and the thresholds that define acute kidney injury — plus the pitfalls of creatinine-based estimation.