Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Resistant hypertension is a clinical indicator rather than a distinct disease. It identifies patients whose blood pressure remains uncontrolled despite intensive…

…pressure. The source material does not provide an exhaustive list of such agents. Resistant hypertension Resistant hypertension is not regarded as a discrete disease; rather…

…angiotensin II and plasma potassium, and resistant to suppression by sodium loading. It is the most common form of secondary hypertension. Aldosterone acts principally through…

…damage. Suspected masked hypertension: normal office blood pressure but organ damage or high risk. Treatment resistant hypertension. Suspected nocturnal hypertension or absent nocturnal dipping (diabetes…

Cardiology Respiratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a heterogeneous pathophysiological disorder characterized primarily by elevation of pulmonary arterial pressure. It may arise…

…effect on myocardial contractility or conduction. Clevidipine reduces mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) by decreasing systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Clevidipine does not reduce cardiac filling…

…venodilation than arteriolar dilation. Effects Nicardipine causes dilation of the coronary and systemic arteries, decreases total peripheral resistance, decreases systemic blood pressure, and decreases afterload…

…signs of acute organ damage or failure. Any of the drugs listed below may be used to treat hypertensive emergencies. The desired time to action…

…signs of acute organ damage or failure. Any of the drugs listed below may be used to treat hypertensive emergencies. The desired time to action…

…there is increased resistance in the aortic valve itself, due to the reduced area of the valvular orifice. Both aortic stenosis and hypertension result in…

…resistance and oxygen transport Formulas Mean arterial pressure (MAP) = diastolic + (systolic − diastolic)/3 Cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate SVR = 80 × (MAP…

Hydralazine Hydralazine is not preferred for hypertensive emergencies due to the high risk of reflex sympathetic stimulation. Drug Hydralazine Brand names Apresoline ®, Bidil ®…

…and Endothelial Dysfunction Insulin resistance impairs renal tubular handling of uric acid and may contribute to hyperuricaemia. Uric acid may promote hypertension through effects on…

…contracts and ejects blood into the aorta roughly 100,000 times daily, each time overcoming the aortic resistance, which is typically 110 mmHg or more…

…and antithrombotic constituents from whole grains. These combined effects may improve inflammation, insulin resistance, glucose metabolism, hypertension, atherogenic dyslipidaemia, endothelial biology and platelet related pathways…

…effects on the cardiovascular system. Acute exposure produces transient haemodynamic and myocardial effects, whereas sustained heavy consumption is associated with hypertension, coronary artery disease, arrhythmias…

…pharmacodynamic mechanisms. These drugs are broadly utilised to augment myocardial contractility, manipulate systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance, and restore adequate end organ perfusion. Dobutamine is…

…of cardiovascular disease (CVD), cardiovascular risk factor clustering, disability and premature mortality. Cardiovascular conditions associated with obesity include hypertension, dyslipidaemia, coronary artery disease (CAD), atherosclerosis…

…the broader cardiovascular kidney metabolic syndrome, in which adiposity, insulin resistance, diabetes, hypertension, CKD and CVD reinforce one another. Dysfunctional adipose tissue contributes to inflammatory…

…adrenergic receptors: expressed in vascular smooth muscle. Activation results in vasoconstriction and an increase in systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Beta 1 adrenergic receptors: expressed in…

…and pericarditis Coronary or large vessel arteritis Pulmonary arterial vasculopathy and pulmonary hypertension Arterial and venous thrombosis Valvular heart disease Cardiac dysrhythmias Arterial stiffness and…

…The clinical consequences of extracellular volume expansion include elevated cardiac filling pressures, pulmonary congestion, systemic venous hypertension, and peripheral interstitial edema. These abnormalities produce breathlessness…

…potentially reflecting capillary rarefaction, fibrosis, or left ventricular hypertrophy. Hypertension, diabetes, and elevated NT proBNP are more frequent in this pattern. Endothelial dysfunction may contribute…

…as vectors along their respective lead axes, and the resultant vector sum determines the mean electrical axis [3]. A frontal plane axis directed toward the…

…the resistance that the the ventricle must overcome to pump blood out into the pulmonary artery. Resistance may increase in, for example, pulmonary hypertension or…

…sets of blood cultures, and a culture from the likely focus 0 to 15 min Ringer's acetate for hypotension or hypoperfusion, usually 500 mL…

…there is increased resistance across the aortic valve, making it more challenging to pump blood into the aorta. The most common causes are hypertension (in…

…Similarly, a decrease in afterload (e.g by means of decreased resistance in the systemic circulation) leads to an increase in ejection fraction. The opposites…

…left atrial enlargement (hypertrophy, dilatation) If the left atrium encounters increased resistance (due to mitral valve stenosis, mitral valve regurgitation, hypertension, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy) it becomes…

…obligatory Hypothermia, new confusion, tachypnoea, hypotension, rigors, abdominal pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and…

…minutes followed by 1 mg/min), it decreases heart rate, systemic vascular resistance, and left ventricular dP/dt. Oral doses sufficient to control arrhythmias do…

…cutaneous vasculitis, lymphoma or granulomatous disease. A treatment resistant rash without a definite diagnosis. Choice of technique Diagnostic question Method Comment : : : Pigmented lesion, suspected melanoma…

…those individuals genuinely at risk of arrest. This predictive problem has proven persistently resistant to resolution. Known predictors of cardiac arrest The only risk biomarker…

…10]. Refractory atrial arrhythmias resistant to antiarrhythmic drugs or repeated ablation procedures should raise suspicion, especially in patients in their mid 60s or older [10…

…increasing coronary blood flow. In circumstances with non shockable rhythm or with prolonged periods of VF (fine VF resistant to defibrillations), the purpose of CPR…

…residential care homes (SÄBO) 2025/2026. They are Swedish regional recommendations and reflect Swedish resistance patterns and formulary availability; check what applies where you work…

…hard to find in older women. Two things separate the safe catheterisation from the harmful one: never forcing against resistance, and never catheterising urethrally when…

…reduction in the orifice area. As the area is reduced, transvalvular flow resistance increases. This results in increased left ventricular load, while simultaneously affecting systemic…

…Hemodynamic determinants of MAP Hemodynamically, MAP is influenced by cardiac output (CO) and systemic vascular resistance (SVR), as described by the relationship: MAP = (CO…

…as commonly occurs with obesity, diabetes, prediabetes, insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and hypertriglyceridaemia. Because triglyceride rich particles contribute additional cholesterol—often approximately 30 mg/dL…

…dL ( 5.6 mmol/L) Triglyceride rich lipoproteins, remnant lipoproteins and insulin resistance are associated with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), particularly in peripheral arterial disease…

…than the right ventricle. This is the result of ventricular adaptation to the resistance that must be overcome by the ventricles. The left ventricle must…

…instantaneous wave free ratio (iFR). Other invasive techniques can quantify coronary flow reserve (CFR), assess microvascular resistance, and investigate coronary vasospasm. Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and…

…current (I), voltage (V) and resistance (R) is described by Ohm's law: V = I • R Pacemakers generate a constant voltage (V). The current…

…will alleviate the ischemia, improve myocardial function and increase resistance to episodes of more severe myocardial ischemia. Collateral circulation may be very effective in reducing…

…is due to the fact that the left ventricle pumps against greater resistance and any disturbance in ventricular activation will reduce the efficiency of the…

…than the right ventricle. This is the result of ventricular adaptation to the resistance that must be overcome by the ventricles. The left ventricle must…

…while a distinct evidence base has emerged for coronary microvascular and vasospastic disease using coronary flow reserve (CFR) and the index of microcirculatory resistance (IMR)…

…). Afterload Afterload is the resistance that the left ventricle must overcome to eject blood into the aorta. Afterload affects myocardial muscle fibers during systole and…

…to visualize clearly with trans thoracic echocardiography. Causes of right ventricular hypertrophy Lung disease (with increased pulmonary vascular resistance), congenital heart disease (transposition of the…

…the cases. As compared with the right ventricle, the left ventricle contracts against much greater resistance (i.e. the pressure in the systemic circulation), and…

…tip also lies in the lumen. 5. Hold the needle still and advance the catheter over the needle. It should slide in without resistance. 6.

…angled slightly anteriorly and medially. Rotate under steady pressure until the resistance suddenly gives way — the cortex has then been passed. Remove the stylet and…

…than a conventional exercise test. Preparation and equipment Cycle ergometer with a braked, workload controlled resistance; 12 lead ECG with continuous recording; automated or manual…

…still, change the syringe and inject. The injection should go in easily. Resistance means the tip is in tissue, not in the joint cavity. 6…

…downwards along the posterior pharyngeal wall in a smooth movement until a clear resistance is felt — the tip of the cuff then lies at the…

…backwards, not upwards towards the bridge of the nose. The resistance at the posterior pharyngeal wall after about 10–15 cm is expected. 5. Ask…

…movement of every tendon crossing the wound. A tendon injury can be painless and gives normal passive movement — test actively against resistance, tendon by tendon …

…Thus, FFR is primarily an index of epicardial stenosis physiology and does not directly quantify the ability of the myocardial resistance vessels to augment flow…

…particularly in patients with: Diabetes or other cardiometabolic risk factors Obesity Insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome Elevated triglycerides Low or apparently well controlled LDL C…