…blood tests and other radiological examinations are most often required, in particular computed tomography (DT) and/or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Anatomy of the pericardium…

…80% of men display ST segment elevations that are not caused by ischemia and a significant proportion have ST T changes caused by other pathological…

…other units caring for resuscitated patients. Figure 1. The chain of survival in out of hospital cardiac arrest. Although the required skills, complexity and costs…

…autopsies are often not performed due to the high costs. The difficulties in determining the cause of out of hospital cardiac arrest are reflected in…

…often necessary to normalize blood pressure. Management of hypertension requires careful consideration of other cardiovascular risk factors and coexisting conditions. Therapy must be tailored to…

…suspected bacterial meningitis — not even with a reduced level of consciousness, focal neurological signs or seizures — because the delay costs more than the scan contributes…

…and guidelines do not state any ECG criteria specific to R wave progression. Figure 1. Pathological R wave progression is indicative of previous myocardial infarction…

…other cardinal symptoms and the severity of the illness. 7. Start NIV without undue delay in persistent hypercapnic respiratory acidosis, if invasive ventilation is not…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…C) is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…risk of arrhythmia. 4. Take a full blood count, electrolytes, creatinine, glucose, high sensitivity troponin and, where needed, coagulation tests. Blood sampling must not delay…

…proceed with urgent investigation , and a normal CT of the brain does not exclude an infarction in the posterior fossa. Preparation and equipment No special…

…not administer to patients with a history of asthma, rhinitis, or urticaria triggered by: Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). Other non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Other…

…soon as possible in the absence of contraindications, using a loading dose followed by maintenance treatment. The source material does not specify the loading dose…

…C and other apoB containing lipoproteins within the arterial wall. This initiates inflammatory reactions that promote plaque formation and progression. As the burden of retained…

…nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs Corticosteroid therapy Other antiplatelet or antithrombotic drugs Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Patient selection Aspirin should not be prescribed routinely to individuals…

…or evaluation of other atherosclerotic disease. Routine population screening is not recommended because the prevalence of severe asymptomatic stenosis is low, screening has not been…

…Myocardial injury leads to release of cardiac troponin, but troponin elevation is not specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated…

…cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were strongly associated with coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction. However, association is not the same as causation . A…

…and under representation of patients with STEMI or other very high risk features. Noninferiority studies designed mainly around bleeding outcomes may not reliably exclude clinically…

…or other vascular beds. Malignant hypertension represents an extreme form in which acute microvascular injury occurs, classically involving fibrinoid necrosis of small arteries in the…

…left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures…

…Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather…

…discontinuation of tobacco smoking, with avoidance of second hand smoke and, where possible, other inhaled nicotine products. In cardiovascular medicine, the objective is not merely…

…be associated with atrial flutter. As compared with several other supraventricular tachyarrhythmias, atrial flutter does not occur among otherwise healthy individuals. Atrial flutter causes characteristic…

…cancel each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest…

…1). This is possible by using two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves…

…tomographic images of the left ventricle. In PET (Positron Emission Tomography), radiotracers emit positrons. When a positron collides with an electron, they annihilate each other…

…the opposite angle of observation. The injury currents are not strong enough to be detected on leads with opposite angle of observation. Other vectors may…

…most often not equal (which makes the PR interval appear as varying). Management of third degree AV block Please refer to Management of AV Blocks…

…at the end of expiration, with the tape horizontal and without compressing the skin. Ratios and other measurements Measurement Calculation Threshold : : : Waist–hip ratio Waist…

…other DOACs are possible according to FASS, but the documentation is insufficient; check more frequently. Warfarin is often preferable <15 or dialysis DOACs are not…

…What usually ruins the examination is not the technique but the handling of the specimen — an aspirate that clots before the smears are made is…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…margin must be included in the freeze. Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is…

…responds to further cholinesterase inhibition. The test has a sensitivity of around 60 % and is not specific: motor neurone disease, myopathies and Lambert–Eaton syndrome…

…3 IV 8 days including oral step down Hospital acquired pneumonia, severe piperacillin–tazobactam 4 g × 4 IV Exacerbation of COPD with an indication for…

…organ damage. Isolated malignant retinopathy without other acute organ damage can often be treated more cautiously with oral drugs under careful observation [3,4]. A…

…is therefore always part of the initial stroke assessment [1]. Treat immediately when there are symptoms and a low glucose. Do not wait for the…

…warning sign of impending overcorrection. Grading Hyponatraemia is defined as a plasma sodium below 135 mmol/L. The biochemical grade alone does not indicate how…

…A markedly raised GGT with the other tests normal is most often enzyme induction by alcohol or drugs and is often of no clinical significance…

…pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive treatments can blunt the febrile response…

Procedurer Pericardiocentesis is performed on the basis of the haemodynamics, not the volume of fluid. A litre that has accumulated slowly can be asymptomatic, while…

…treatment — modification of loading, eccentric exercise, an NSAID, an orthosis — has not given a sufficient effect. Contraindications Absolute: Cellulitis, a skin wound or other infection…

…preferably anteroposteriorly : one anteriorly over the praecordium to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine…

…Heart failure, pulmonary oedema and other conditions with a high risk of fluid overload — a relative contraindication requiring invasive monitoring and slower administration. Significant metabolic…

…SOVd} = 1.92 + 0.74 \times \text{BSA} ) Definition of aortic aneurysm Sinus of Valsalva 45 mm. Any other segment 40 mm in diameter…

…6% High risk 5 or more 5.8% Interpretation of ATRIA risk score. Comparison with other bleeding risk models Several bleeding risk assessment tools exist…

…chadsva] The CHA₂DS₂ VA score has superseded the CHA₂DS₂ VASc score. As of 2025, it is recommended to use the CHA₂DS₂ VA score for stroke…

…patients, regardless of the type of oral anticoagulant used. Studies have shown that it performs similarly or superiorly to other bleeding risk assessment tools, such…

…3 Interpretation of HEMORR₂HAGES score. Comparison with ATRIA and HAS BLED Scores Several studies have compared the predictive performance of HEMORR₂HAGES with other bleeding risk…

…accumulation of bradykinin. ACE is responsible for metabolizing bradykinin and other tachykinins, such as substance P. When ACE is inhibited, the resulting accumulation of these…

…above the 99th percentile. The clinical presentation should not be interpreted in isolation. The initial diagnosis and triage depend on integration of symptoms, vital signs…

…pulmonary vascular obstruction is accompanied by limited cardiopulmonary reserve or other adverse comorbidity. The classification of acute PE comprises four clinically useful groups: High risk…

…drinking in either sex. Other definitions of unhealthy drinking include at least two drinks daily in women or three in men, or at least four…

…vasoconstriction, adhesion of circulating cells, inflammatory cell entry into the intima, and thrombus formation. Atherosclerosis is therefore not simply a disorder of lipid storage. Its…

…term risk of stroke. In patients with acute decompensated heart failure, AF with rapid ventricular response is particularly important. Cardioversion is generally not immediately indicated…

…limiting the applicability of trial findings to people with substantial functional impairment, multimorbidity, or limited life expectancy. Available randomized evidence has not demonstrated that frailty…