…cysts and tumors of the pericardium, as well as congenital malformations leading to an incomplete or absent pericardium. In case of suspicion of pericardial disease…

…Other congenital anomalies include anomalous origin of a coronary artery from the pulmonary artery and anomalous origin of one coronary artery from the opposite aortic…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…occlusions of arteries in the brain, limbs or other organs. However, the increased risk in mortality is not completely explained by the increased risk of…

…Prinzmetal's angina (coronary vasospasm), electrolyte disorders , congenital heart disease and catecholamine induced ventricular tachycardia . The vast majority of patients with ventricular tachycardia either have…

…the treatment of Sarcoma, Lymphoma, Leukemia, Lymphocytic, and Hodgkin Disease, among others. It is a novel, broad spectrum hydroxamic acid based inhibitor of histone deacetylase…

…descending limb of the S wave In case of complete/incomplete bundle branch block or pacemaker rhythm, 2 notches are required in the S wave…

…Lathundar Key messages Two things set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…is characterized by several principles: Lower LDL C is associated with lower ASCVD risk across the range studied, including concentrations below 1.4 mmol/L…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…begins in parallel with the diagnostic work up. Obtain an interpretable 12 lead ECG within 10 minutes of first medical contact, attach continuous rhythm monitoring…

…history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre. Indications Brief attacks of vertigo, seconds…

…NSAIDs). Other contraindications: Hemophilia. Thrombocytopenia. Active gastric or duodenal ulcers. Liver cirrhosis. Severe heart failure. Doses 100 mg/day during the third trimester of pregnancy…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…C and other apoB containing lipoproteins within the arterial wall. This initiates inflammatory reactions that promote plaque formation and progression. As the burden of retained…

…aggregation. Because aspirin affects only one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Other cardiopulmonary causes , including myopericardial…

…with homozygous FH typically die from acute myocardial infarction at 20 to 30 years of age. People with familial hypercholesterolemia have no other metabolic aberration…

…from selected populations, frequently with low or intermediate ischemic risk and under representation of patients with STEMI or other very high risk features. Noninferiority studies…

…monoamine oxidase inhibitor crisis, cocaine intoxication, or other sympathomimetic exposure, including methamphetamine. Abrupt withdrawal of antihypertensive medication, particularly clonidine, can also precipitate a hypertensive crisis…

…left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures…

…a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have concomitant coronary, cerebrovascular or other peripheral arterial…

…coronary syndrome Reinfarction reduced by approximately 30–40%; death reduced by approximately 35–45% Peripheral artery disease Lower risk of progression to chronic limb threat

…beats per minute. Note that with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2…

…cancel each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest…

…myocardial ischemia. Other symptoms include dyspnea, pain radiating to the left arm/shoulder/throat, palpitations, back pain and selected cases of upper abdominal pain. An…

…1). This is possible by using two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves…

…administration. Radiotracers with higher levels of redistribution can move from areas of higher concentration to regions with lower concentration, for reasons other than perfusion differences…

…opposite angle of observation. Other vectors may interfere with the injury currents, and inhibit them from being detected by leads with opposite angles of observation…

…more reliable (the risk of cardiac arrest is considerably lower). Moreover, ventricular escape rhythms are slow, resulting in reduced cardiac output and risk of hypoperfusion…

…at the end of expiration, with the tape horizontal and without compressing the skin. Ratios and other measurements Measurement Calculation Threshold : : : Waist–hip ratio Waist…

…the bleeding risk of the procedure and by renal function. In markedly reduced renal function (dabigatran at eGFR <30 mL/min, the other DOACs at…

…marrow — choose the other side). A patient who cannot lie still — plan for sedation rather than abandoning the procedure. Choice of site The posterior superior…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…margin must be included in the freeze. Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is…

…high grade AV block without pacemaker protection. Asthma and other marked obstructive airways disease — relative; the risk of bronchospasm is real. Hypotension and haemodynamic instability…

…g × 3 IV 8 days including oral step down Hospital acquired pneumonia, severe piperacillin–tazobactam 4 g × 4 IV Exacerbation of COPD with an indication…

…no absolute threshold defines the condition. A rapid rise in blood pressure can cause serious organ damage even at lower levels, particularly in pregnancy [1…

…and any other precipitating factor. Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient's need…

…Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body's exchangeable sodium and potassium and the total…

…bilirubin Unconjugated, the others normal Gilbert's syndrome, haemolysis The R value = (ALT / upper limit of normal) / (ALP / upper limit of normal). An R…

…pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive treatments can blunt the febrile response…

…tricuspid inflow The echocardiographic counterpart of pulsus paradoxus Contraindications In overt tamponade with shock there are no absolute contraindications other than the conditions in which…

…injection; 25–27 G, 25 mm for the carpal tunnel, de Quervain's and trigger finger. Syringes of 3, 5 and 10 mL, artery forceps…

…preferably anteroposteriorly : one anteriorly over the praecordium to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine…

…Heart failure, pulmonary oedema and other conditions with a high risk of fluid overload — a relative contraindication requiring invasive monitoring and slower administration. Significant metabolic…

…SOVd} = 1.92 + 0.74 \times \text{BSA} ) Definition of aortic aneurysm Sinus of Valsalva 45 mm. Any other segment 40 mm in diameter…

…8% Interpretation of ATRIA risk score. Comparison with other bleeding risk models Several bleeding risk assessment tools exist for patients with AF, including HAS BLED…

…chadsva] The CHA₂DS₂ VA score has superseded the CHA₂DS₂ VASc score. As of 2025, it is recommended to use the CHA₂DS₂ VA score for stroke…

…Components of the HAS BLED Score The HAS BLED score is an acronym that stands for: H ypertension A bnormal renal/liver function S troke…

…point) E xcessive fall risk (1 point) S troke (1 point) HEMORR₂HAGES Score Risk category Incidence of major bleeding (per 100 patient years) 0 Low…

…accumulation of bradykinin. ACE is responsible for metabolizing bradykinin and other tachykinins, such as substance P. When ACE is inhibited, the resulting accumulation of these…

…longer episodes, a lower threshold for provocation, or symptoms that awaken the patient from sleep. Initial symptoms of NSTEMI and UA may be similar. NSTEMI…

…management pathway. Patients without haemodynamic instability require more detailed prognostic evaluation using two complementary domains: Indicators of acute PE severity , including clinical findings, RV dysfunction…

…drinking in either sex. Other definitions of unhealthy drinking include at least two drinks daily in women or three in men, or at least four…

…architecture and mechanical stability. Atherosclerotic lesions commonly arise at sites of disturbed flow, including branch points in the epicardial coronary arteries. Early lesions may undergo…

…itself. It may cause symptoms and impaired quality of life, contribute to heart failure, and increase the risk of stroke and other thromboembolic events. Subclinical…

…treatment, or other interventions. Frailty commonly overlaps with multimorbidity and is frequent in patients with cardiovascular disease, including heart failure and ischaemic heart disease. Ageing…