…morphology and provides material for flow cytometry and genetics, while the biopsy shows marrow architecture and cellularity. What usually ruins the examination is not the…

…the pattern of injury or disease, the response to initial treatment and the expected continued bleeding matters more than an exact estimate of blood loss…

…which can propagate through vacuum, sound waves can only propagate through a physical medium. This medium may consist of any matter, e.g air, water…

…enhanced elimination. For many poisonings, well delivered supportive treatment matters more than the antidote [1,2]. Telephone your national or regional poison control centre , which…

…constellations of leads have been tested but the standard 12 lead ECG is still the most used and the most important lead system to master…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Pre excitation, Atrioventricular Reentrant (reentry) Tachycardia (AVRT) and Wolff Parkinson White (WPW) syndrome: ECG, clinical characteristics and management Pre excitation The…

…hypertension — recommended before treatment is started . Suspected white coat hypertension: raised office blood pressure without organ damage. Suspected masked hypertension: normal office blood pressure but…

…level Measure in both arms at the first visit; a difference 15 mmHg suggests vascular disease, and the arm with the higher reading is used…

…segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). While the incidence of STEMI is decreasing and the incidence of NSTEMI is increasing, STEMI remains a critical clinical entity…

…platelet activation and interaction. Thrombotic debris may worsen microvascular obstruction, while cardiomyocyte swelling, interstitial oedema and tissue inflammation produce extravascular compression. In the most severe…

…to moderate exacerbation of asthma symptoms. Adenosine should be used with caution in patients with obstructive lung disease or asthma. Irregular wide complex tachycardia (absolute…

…However, in cases of rapid AVNRT or in patients with underlying structural heart disease, the arrhythmia may result in symptoms indicative of reduced cardiac output…

…A lesion in which histology is needed for management. Cryoglobulinaemia, cold agglutinin disease, cold urticaria. Relative: Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma — these can…

…5 minutes seated or supine. White coat hypertension: office pressure above the hypertension threshold but non hypertensive home or ambulatory pressure. Masked hypertension: office pressure…

…or visceral, adipose tissue is more closely related to insulin resistance and the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease than total adiposity alone. The waist…

Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Resistant hypertension is a clinical indicator rather than a distinct disease. It identifies patients whose blood pressure remains uncontrolled despite intensive…

…approximately 20–25% of secondary hypertension cases. Coarctation of the aorta and renovascular disease are important non endocrine causes, particularly in patients with resistant hypertension…

…RBBB and LBBB. This was reported in the Coronary Heart Disease Study,1 which enrolled 10,899 participants with baseline ECG examinations. Individuals with nonspecific…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Introduction Cardiovascular disease becomes increasingly prevalent with advancing age, while its clinical expression and management become progressively more complex. Older adults, often…

…performed during advanced cardiovascular life support (ACLS). While basic life support (BLS) can be delivered by virtually anyone, advanced cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ACLS) is provided by…

…of free air in the thoracic cavity. While this can occasionally be benign and manifest even in healthy individuals, a tension pneumothorax arises when the…

…problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been reduced by approximately 50% during the past few decades, the…

…problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been reduced by approximately 50% during the past few decades, the…

…is an emergency. Infection can progress rapidly, while the typical local signs of inflammation may be faint or absent. Take cultures immediately, but never let…

…litre that has accumulated slowly can be asymptomatic, while 150 mL collected over an hour causes tamponade. The indication rests on the clinical picture together…

…action • Systemic Dopamine 1 (D1) receptor agonist. • Lowers blood pressure while maintaining or increasing kidney perfusion. Effects Dopamine 1 receptor agonists lower systemic blood pressure…

…crisis. Mechanism of action Phentolamine is a non selective alpha adrenergic blocker. Phentolamine reduces blood pressure while increasing catecholamine activity. Effects Primarily causes afterload reduction…

…rather similar within a drug class. While the risk of TdP is well defined for many of these agents, many are classified as QT prolonging…

…CCS) is directed primarily at reducing myocardial ischaemia and relieving anginal symptoms, while maintaining tolerability and adherence. Selection should be individualized according to blood pressure…

…typically exceeding 200 beats per minute. While ECG appearances with flutter like patterns are predominantly caused by macroreentrant circuits, microreentry remains a possible alternative mechanism…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…which a patient performs progressively increasing external work, usually on a treadmill, while symptoms, a 12 lead ECG, heart rate and blood pressure are monitored…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Therapeutic Rationale Hypertension is a major risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and contributes to microvascular and macrovascular complications. It…

…and Pathophysiology Angina with non obstructive coronary arteries (ANOCA) describes anginal symptoms in patients whose epicardial coronary arteries are normal or show no obstructive disease…

…common in patients with inferoposterior left ventricular infarction, while infarction confined predominantly to the right ventricle is rare. The clinical spectrum extends from limited right…

…4.0 cm 2 . Aortic stenosis is a progressive disease that leads to a gradual reduction in the orifice area. As the area is reduced…

…pulseless electrical activity (PEA) as the initial rhythm, while the remainder manifest ventricular fibrillation (VF) or asystole ( Ebo et al ). Clinical manifestations of anaphylaxis Nervousness…

…Cycle ergometer is preferred in Europe, while treadmill testing is predominant in the United States. Treadmill and cycle ergometer both have their advantages and disadvantages…

…the underlying mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias. While a detailed understanding of these mechanisms is not essential for all clinicians, it is reasonable to acquire an…

…a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by the subendothelial accumulation of apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins, macrophage…

…calm, mildly somnolent but rousable patient, while ventilation, circulation and underlying disease are monitored [3]. The management of complicated withdrawal varies between regions and units…

…A circumferential cast in a fresh injury, before surgery, or while swelling is progressing. Take care in impaired sensation (neuropathy, spinal cord injury) — the patient…

…off. The defibrillator finds no stable R wave, and in sync mode no shock at all is then delivered while the patient deteriorates. Indications Emergency…

…release. In cardiac arrest with suspected hyperkalaemia, advanced life support is followed while the hyperkalaemia is treated. Calcium chloride is then usually the first choice…

…always, including while fasting. Many with type 2 Mealtime insulin (rapid acting) Covers the carbohydrate in the meal Anyone who is eating Correction dose (rapid…

…blocker, a calcium channel blocker or digitalis, while awaiting the antidote and specific treatment. Bradyasystole during and after cardiac arrest with persisting electrical activity. Overdrive…

…and vascular resistance. Advantages of measuring MAP over systolic blood pressure While systolic blood pressure (SBP) indicates the maximum pressure during heart contraction, it does…

…often recommended for PCI, while those with high scores (≥33) are typically advised to undergo CABG due to better long term outcomes. Intermediate scores (23…

…after PCI; reduce recurrent atherothrombotic events in chronic coronary disease; preserve the benefit of coronary intervention while limiting major and clinically relevant bleeding. Long term…

…Atherosclerotic disease usually evolves over decades. Intimal thickening may be present during the second and third decades of life, while clinical manifestations commonly emerge much…

…patients with cardiovascular disease, including heart failure and ischaemic heart disease. Ageing is associated with progressive increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP), while diastolic blood…

…and infarction Definition and Purpose Cardiac rehabilitation is a comprehensive, multidisciplinary secondary prevention intervention for patients with cardiovascular disease, including those recovering from myocardial infarction…

…tissue contributes to inflammatory and metabolic abnormalities, while CKD promotes vascular and myocardial disease through direct and indirect mechanisms. The kidney also influences cardiovascular physiology…

…and Pathophysiology Coronary artery disease and obstructive stenosis Anatomically significant epicardial CAD is conventionally defined as stenosis of at least 70%, while a left main…

…descriptions report rates of approximately 5–10%, while fewer than 5% of otherwise normal angiograms demonstrate bridging. The wide range reflects differences in ascertainment and…

…chest discomfort requires a systematic differential diagnosis, as the syndrome associated with ischemic heart disease is broader than chest pain itself, encompassing symptoms like tightness…

…up diameter stenosis greater than 50%—occurred in 20–30% of patients, while clinically evident restenosis, manifested by recurrent angina attributable to the treated segment…

…driven atherothrombosis, while interruption of antiplatelet therapy after recent stenting is associated with increased risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and stent thrombosis. Premature…

…hemodynamic abnormality in HFpEF is impaired diastolic function. The left ventricle may have apparently preserved global systolic emptying while exhibiting impaired relaxation, increased passive stiffness…

…than two thirds—roughly 67%—of these fatalities resulting from cardiovascular disease (CVD). 1 While BMI remains the most widely utilized metric for assessing weight…