…well being. Physical inactivity is itself a major cardiovascular risk factor. Sedentary behaviour may confer risk even in individuals who achieve recommended exercise volumes; therefore…

…after the menopausal transition. Women with type 2 diabetes also have a higher prevalence of cardiovascular complications and death than men. Despite the effectiveness of…

…ischaemia Paraplegia or paraparesis Persistent or recurrent pain Hypertension that remains uncontrolled despite optimal therapy Acute type A dissection has a particularly rapid early mortality…

…Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major cardiovascular risk condition. It is associated with a two to four fold…

…to apolipoprotein(a). The length of apolipoprotein(a) varies because of genetically determined differences in the number of kringle IV type 2 repeats. Lp(a)…

…infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 myocardial infarction (MI) is defined as an ischaemic myocardial injury occurring in the context of a mismatch between myocardial…

…Mobitz type 1 block generally does not progress to more advanced blocks. Should it progress to more advanced blocks, which typically is due to a…

…up the interpretation. Note that this chapter is preceded by a comprehensive discussion in the chapter Characteristics and Definitions of the Normal ECG, and the…

Echocardiography Cardiomyopathy caused by tachycardia A prolonged tachycardia can cause cardiomyopathy with left ventricular dilation. This type of cardiomyopathy, referred to as tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy…

…Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Pathophysiology Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a hepatic protein that regulates the availability of the low density lipoprotein…

…is relevant for medical prognostication as it serves as a quick, low cost, and reliable screening tool for body composition, risk of type 2 diabetes…

Echocardiography Cardiac thromboembolism Thromboembolism is a leading cause of death worldwide (1). Emboli originating in the atria, left atrial appendage (LAA), ventricles, valves, and proximal…

…the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation. Because color Doppler is a type of pulsed wave Doppler, it is limited by the Nyquist limit…

…Many with type 2 Mealtime insulin (rapid acting) Covers the carbohydrate in the meal Anyone who is eating Correction dose (rapid acting) Corrects a currently…

[calc_hasbled] The HAS BLED score is a widely recognized and validated tool used to assess the one year risk of major bleeding in patients…

…Definition and therapeutic rationale Inclisiran is a liver directed small interfering RNA (siRNA) designed to reduce production of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9)…

…blog Endocrinology & metabolism Cardiovascular medicine is currently witnessing a paradigm shift. For decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed…

… A: Mobitz Type II 2nd AV block B: Prolonged QT interval (QTc ≥ 480 ms for females) C: Incomplete Right Bundle Branch Block (rSR' pattern in…

…Haemodynamic measurements become interpretable only when related to one another. A low blood pressure may be due to low flow, low vascular tone or both…

…type 2, newly discovered complete heart block without current symptoms, alternating bundle branch block in acute anterior infarction, and before drugs or procedures with a…

…as a substitute for mobilisation and bladder training. Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected urethral injury — blood at the meatus, a perineal or scrotal haematoma, a…

Cardiology Emergency medicine Definition and Pathophysiology A hypertensive emergency is severe blood pressure elevation accompanied by acute hypertension mediated target organ damage (HMOD). The European…

Cardiology Clinical chemistry & laboratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology B type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N terminal pro BNP (NT proBNP) are circulating markers of myocardial…

…of type 2 diabetes mellitus Atherosclerotic cardiovascular events HF and atrial fibrillation Obesity therefore acts both as an independent cardiovascular risk factor and as a…

…It is a PCI related myocardial infarction when angiography or autopsy documents thrombosis and the diagnostic criteria used for type 1 myocardial infarction are fulfilled…

Echocardiography Heart failure Heart failure is a major public health problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been…

Cardiology Heart failure Heart failure is a major public health problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been…

…that the patient's weight, height and sex are entered. RWT is a measure of the type of hypertrophy. Generally, hypertrophy is defined as wall…

…particularly ascending or type A aortic dissection Myocardial free wall rupture after infarction Anticoagulant associated bleeding Renal failure Systemic inflammatory disease Catheter based electrophysiological and…

…function is also fundamental to global cardiac function. Diastolic dysfunction results in a special type of heart failure, referred to as heart failure with preserved…

Visual assessment of regional wall motion (left ventricle) TYPE OF MOTION DEFINITION WALL MOTION SCORE Normal Normal thickening (typically 30% thickening from end diastole to…

…pain or pressure, and an accelerating pattern. An accelerating pattern includes increasingly frequent or severe episodes, longer episodes, a lower threshold for provocation, or symptoms…

…settings, while the broader lipid lowering recommendation refers to a recurrent event without requiring that it be of the same type as the initial event…

…lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The principal drugs identified in the source material are canagliflozin, dapagliflozin and empagliflozin; sotagliflozin is a related dual…

…1] [2] . The evolution of HF terminology has been driven by a deeper understanding of myocardial mechanics and clinical outcomes. The 2022 American Heart Association…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

…branches has repolarized, which leads to a bundle branch block. This type of bundle branch block is termed aberration (or aberrant ventricular conduction ), which was…

…120 ms with a delta wave and QRS 110 ms. Brugada pattern type 1: ST elevation ≥ 2 mm of coved type with a negative T…

…in an ischaemic pattern. Identification of a coronary thrombus by angiography or autopsy, except in type 2 and type 3 MI. A diagnosis of MI…

…Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected base of skull fracture or a marked midfacial fracture — the tube can pass through a fracture in the cribriform plate…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…A rise in the serum creatinine up to 30% is considered acceptable. In the setting of acute heart failure, N terminal pro B type natriuretic…

…Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Myocardial injury Myocardial injury is a biochemical diagnosis defined by at least one cardiac troponin value above the…

…Presentation and Symptoms The characteristic symptom prompting activation of the STEMI pathway is ischaemic type chest discomfort, although dyspnoea may also be a presenting feature…

…refractory and therefore blocks the impulse. The resulting QRS complex has a right bundle branch block morphology (rSR pattern), which is due to aberrant ventricular…

…includes a depolarization (activation) followed by a repolarization (recovery). The action potential occurs in all cardiac cells but its appearance varies depending on cell type…

…nortriptyline (Pamelor), protriptyline, Trimipramine. If a reversible cause of bradycardia is suspected, management should be targeted at that cause. With regards to medications, the clinical…

…and oxygenator. ECMO (Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation) , a type of ECLS, operates by drawing venous blood from the patient to an oxygenator (gas exchanger), where it…

…Sample type and baseline values An arterial blood gas is the reference method when the question concerns oxygenation, precise ventilation or severe respiratory failure. A…

…no valid result exists Type and screen (BAS test) Blood group confirmation and antibody screening. If the screen is negative, a unit is selected electronically…

…Recurrent bleeding from a visible vessel on the septum (cautery). Continued bleeding despite compression and cautery (packing). Contraindications Cautery: Type Contraindication : : Absolute The source of…

…inflate to a seal and check that the cuff pressure does not exceed 60 cmH₂O . Gel cuffed masks of the i gel type have no…

…for carbon monoxide An obstructive pattern: FEV₁/FVC below the lower limit of normal (traditionally < 0.70). A restrictive pattern: a reduced TLC — this…

…the risk of pneumothorax and is now the standard — puncture on the basis of percussion and a chest radiograph alone belongs to an earlier era…

…in turn reduces the L type calcium current (Ica.L) and the pacemaker current (If) in sinus node cells, accompanied by a decrease in Vmax…

…et al also report a significant association between troponin T levels and C reactive protein (CRP) and N terminal pro B type natriuretic peptide (NT…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiological rationale Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) denotes treatment with aspirin plus a P2Y12 receptor inhibitor. In the…

…risk relative. Across inherited cardiomyopathies, phenotypic expression generally follows a sigmoid pattern over the lifetime. Expression is relatively uncommon in the first decade, rises progressively…

…exhibits some type 3 phosphodiesterase inhibitor (PDEI) activity, which may contribute to its inotropic profile. The drug possesses an active, acetylated metabolite with a half…

…threshold and a rise of more than 20% from baseline. Type 4a MI after PCI In a patient with normal baseline cTn, type 4a MI…