…coronary artery disease, left ventricular hypertrophy, dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, degenerative disease, hypertension, hyperkalemia, myocarditis, and amyloidosis may all cause LAFB. Prognosis of left anterior…

…it often holds true for cardiac arrests caused by chronic or acute ischemic heart disease, it is often not true in other circumstances (e.g…

…valves are not vascularized and therefore it is difficult for the immune system to reach the bacteria. Endocarditis can lead to the destruction of the…

…ventricular tachycardia, which may degenerate into ventricular fibrillation at any age. Exercise, or any other activity causing adrenergic stimulation, increase the risk of syncope, ventricular…

…quality CPR). The longer the duration of cardiac arrest, the greater the likelihood of a shockable rhythm degenerating into asystole or PEA. Neurological function after…

…and guidelines do not state any ECG criteria specific to R wave progression. Figure 1. Pathological R wave progression is indicative of previous myocardial infarction…

…other cardinal symptoms and the severity of the illness. 7. Start NIV without undue delay in persistent hypercapnic respiratory acidosis, if invasive ventilation is not…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…risk of arrhythmia. 4. Take a full blood count, electrolytes, creatinine, glucose, high sensitivity troponin and, where needed, coagulation tests. Blood sampling must not delay…

…proceed with urgent investigation , and a normal CT of the brain does not exclude an infarction in the posterior fossa. Preparation and equipment No special…

…artery disease. Stable angina pectoris. Secondary prophylaxis to prevent recurrence of cerebrovascular diseases, such as: Transient ischemic attacks (TIA). Stroke Contraindications Cross reactivity: Do not…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…Their clinical importance arises from the causal role of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) and other apoB containing lipoproteins in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…that inhibit other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and secondary prevention is fundamental: Primary prevention refers to individuals without established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD…

…Asymptomatic disease may be discovered during targeted duplex ultrasound (DUS), pre operative assessment, or evaluation of other atherosclerotic disease. Routine population screening is not recommended…

…of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Other cardiopulmonary causes , including myopericardial disease…

…cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were strongly associated with coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction. However, association is not the same as causation . A…

…and under representation of patients with STEMI or other very high risk features. Noninferiority studies designed mainly around bleeding outcomes may not reliably exclude clinically…

…or other vascular beds. Malignant hypertension represents an extreme form in which acute microvascular injury occurs, classically involving fibrinoid necrosis of small arteries in the…

…arteries. It frequently coexists with left main coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous…

…over 40 years of age, atherosclerosis is the predominant cause. Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma…

…a substantial proportion of the excess ischaemic heart disease risk associated with heavy smoking. Consequently, reducing the number of cigarettes smoked does not produce a…

…ischemic heart disease. However, most cardiac conditions may be associated with atrial flutter. As compared with several other supraventricular tachyarrhythmias, atrial flutter does not occur…

…cancel each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest…

…80% of men display ST segment elevations that are not caused by ischemia and a significant proportion have ST T changes caused by other pathological…

…1). This is possible by using two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves…

…significant coronary artery disease, potentially resulting in false negative findings. Radiotracers in myocardial perfusion imaging Radiotracers are designed to identify ischemic areas of the myocardium…

…the opposite angle of observation. The injury currents are not strong enough to be detected on leads with opposite angle of observation. Other vectors may…

…most often not equal (which makes the PR interval appear as varying). Management of third degree AV block Please refer to Management of AV Blocks…

…at the end of expiration, with the tape horizontal and without compressing the skin. Ratios and other measurements Measurement Calculation Threshold : : : Waist–hip ratio Waist…

…other DOACs are possible according to FASS, but the documentation is insufficient; check more frequently. Warfarin is often preferable <15 or dialysis DOACs are not…

…What usually ruins the examination is not the technique but the handling of the specimen — an aspirate that clots before the smears are made is…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is needed for management. Cryoglobulinaemia, cold agglutinin disease…

…high grade AV block without pacemaker protection. Asthma and other marked obstructive airways disease — relative; the risk of bronchospasm is real. Hypotension and haemodynamic instability…

…applies where you work. They assume normal renal and hepatic function, a non pregnant adult of normal weight, and individual assessment. See the separate quick…

…pharmacology of the drug, comorbidity, and the ability to titrate safely [5]. Availability in Sweden. Several of the drugs in this overview are not routinely…

…is therefore always part of the initial stroke assessment [1]. Treat immediately when there are symptoms and a low glucose. Do not wait for the…

…warning sign of impending overcorrection. Grading Hyponatraemia is defined as a plasma sodium below 135 mmol/L. The biochemical grade alone does not indicate how…

…A markedly raised GGT with the other tests normal is most often enzyme induction by alcohol or drugs and is often of no clinical significance…

…pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive treatments can blunt the febrile response…

Procedurer Pericardiocentesis is performed on the basis of the haemodynamics, not the volume of fluid. A litre that has accumulated slowly can be asymptomatic, while…

…treatment — modification of loading, eccentric exercise, an NSAID, an orthosis — has not given a sufficient effect. Contraindications Absolute: Cellulitis, a skin wound or other infection…

…preferably anteroposteriorly : one anteriorly over the praecordium to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine…

…serum concentration. Alkalinisation increases renal elimination several fold and at the same time reduces the passage of salicylate into the central nervous system. Contact your…

…SOVd} = 1.92 + 0.74 \times \text{BSA} ) Definition of aortic aneurysm Sinus of Valsalva 45 mm. Any other segment 40 mm in diameter…

…6% High risk 5 or more 5.8% Interpretation of ATRIA risk score. Comparison with other bleeding risk models Several bleeding risk assessment tools exist…

…chadsva] The CHA₂DS₂ VA score has superseded the CHA₂DS₂ VASc score. As of 2025, it is recommended to use the CHA₂DS₂ VA score for stroke…

…patients, regardless of the type of oral anticoagulant used. Studies have shown that it performs similarly or superiorly to other bleeding risk assessment tools, such…

…balancing estimating the risks of bleeding. Components of the HEMORR₂HAGES Score The acronym HEMORR₂HAGES represents the following parameters: H epatic or renal disease (1 point…

…ACE) inhibitors are foundational therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction …

…Manifestations include angina, other chest discomfort, dyspnoea, or no symptoms. Although chronic coronary disease may remain stable for prolonged periods, it can progress or destabilize…

…and oxygenation Evidence of systemic congestion or acute RV failure Syncope or altered clinical status Comorbid cardiopulmonary disease, active cancer, and other conditions incorporated into…

…drinking in either sex. Other definitions of unhealthy drinking include at least two drinks daily in women or three in men, or at least four…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…term risk of stroke. In patients with acute decompensated heart failure, AF with rapid ventricular response is particularly important. Cardioversion is generally not immediately indicated…

…limiting the applicability of trial findings to people with substantial functional impairment, multimorbidity, or limited life expectancy. Available randomized evidence has not demonstrated that frailty…