…far enough forward that the head will extend beyond the end of the couch when laid down. 2. Turn the head 45° to the right…

…are balanced and no ischemia occurs. (Some individuals display a benign form of ischemia located in the subendocardium during exercise; this manifests with ST segment…

…targeted examination. The patient's description of the quality of the dizziness — rotatory vertigo, unsteadiness or faintness — discriminates poorly between dangerous and benign causes. Ask…

…margin must be included in the freeze. Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is…

…table below shows a systematic history taking in patients presenting with chest pain (chest discomfort) or other symptoms suggestive of the five conditions listed above…

…Thromboembolism). There are genetic syndromes that result in the emergence of multiple myxomas. Papillary fibroelastoma Papillary fibroelastoma is benign primary tumors affecting adults. These tumors…

…confused a completely benign condition (male/female pattern) with a condition which is associated with 5 times as great a risk of sudden cardiac death…

…considered a benign conduction defect. Roughly 7% of cases progress to bifascicular block (which means that the LAFB is accompanied by a right bundle branch…

…mentioned below are discussed in detail in other chapters, to which links are provided throughout the text. Heart rate During the first week of life…

…is benign and the most common cause of sinus arrest/pause. It commonly affects younger individuals who endure intense emotional stress, acute pain or other…

…This is also a normal finding. Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia In all other situations, sinus bradycardia should be regarded as a pathological finding…

…once the exercise is stopped. Some experts believe that these ST segment depressions represent a benign form of subendocardial ischemia. Refer to Exercise Stress Testing…

…tachycardias should be considered pathological and the task is to clarify the cause of the tachycardia. The cause may range from benign to highly malignant…

…other situations than does ventricular rhythm; idioventricular rhythm is primarily seen after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of…

…ventricular fibrillation. The combination of early repolarization pattern on ECG and ventricular fibrillation or sudden cardiac arrest is referred to as early repolarization syndrome . Early…

…ischemia. Inverted U waves are even more typical of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes…

…Lathundar Key messages Two things set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…C) is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease…

…begins in parallel with the diagnostic work up. Obtain an interpretable 12 lead ECG within 10 minutes of first medical contact, attach continuous rhythm monitoring…

…acetylsalicylic acid at the first sign of skin rash, mucosal lesions, or hypersensitivity. Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…C and other apoB containing lipoproteins within the arterial wall. This initiates inflammatory reactions that promote plaque formation and progression. As the burden of retained…

…aggregation. Because aspirin affects only one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Other cardiopulmonary causes , including myopericardial…

…with homozygous FH typically die from acute myocardial infarction at 20 to 30 years of age. People with familial hypercholesterolemia have no other metabolic aberration…

…from selected populations, frequently with low or intermediate ischemic risk and under representation of patients with STEMI or other very high risk features. Noninferiority studies…

…monoamine oxidase inhibitor crisis, cocaine intoxication, or other sympathomimetic exposure, including methamphetamine. Abrupt withdrawal of antihypertensive medication, particularly clonidine, can also precipitate a hypertensive crisis…

…left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures…

…Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather…

…and cardiovascular rationale Smoking cessation is the complete discontinuation of tobacco smoking, with avoidance of second hand smoke and, where possible, other inhaled nicotine products…

…In the vast majority of cases, the re entry circuit in atrial flutter is located in the right atrium and it typically loops around the…

…characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), one should suspect concomitant right ventricular…

…myocardial ischemia. Other symptoms include dyspnea, pain radiating to the left arm/shoulder/throat, palpitations, back pain and selected cases of upper abdominal pain. An…

…1). This is possible by using two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves…

…tomographic images of the left ventricle. In PET (Positron Emission Tomography), radiotracers emit positrons. When a positron collides with an electron, they annihilate each other…

…opposite angle of observation. Other vectors may interfere with the injury currents, and inhibit them from being detected by leads with opposite angles of observation…

…establish a diagnosis of third degree AV block if the atrial and ventricular rate is equal and the P waves occur right before the QRS…

…at the end of expiration, with the tape horizontal and without compressing the skin. Ratios and other measurements Measurement Calculation Threshold : : : Waist–hip ratio Waist…

…the bleeding risk of the procedure and by renal function. In markedly reduced renal function (dabigatran at eGFR <30 mL/min, the other DOACs at…

…marrow — choose the other side). A patient who cannot lie still — plan for sedation rather than abandoning the procedure. Choice of site The posterior superior…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…high grade AV block without pacemaker protection. Asthma and other marked obstructive airways disease — relative; the risk of bronchospasm is real. Hypotension and haemodynamic instability…

…then 100 mg × 1 5–7 days Epiglottitis and other severe upper airway infection cefotaxime 1–2 g × 3 IV Depends on the diagnosis Always…

…organ damage. Isolated malignant retinopathy without other acute organ damage can often be treated more cautiously with oral drugs under careful observation [3,4]. A…

…physical activity and any other precipitating factor. Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…bilirubin Unconjugated, the others normal Gilbert's syndrome, haemolysis The R value = (ALT / upper limit of normal) / (ALP / upper limit of normal). An R…

…pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive treatments can blunt the febrile response…

…most superficially, where the distance from the skin is shortest, and where no liver, lung or vessel lies in the path of the needle. Access…

…treatment — modification of loading, eccentric exercise, an NSAID, an orthosis — has not given a sufficient effect. Contraindications Absolute: Cellulitis, a skin wound or other infection…

…preferably anteroposteriorly : one anteriorly over the praecordium to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine…

…Heart failure, pulmonary oedema and other conditions with a high risk of fluid overload — a relative contraindication requiring invasive monitoring and slower administration. Significant metabolic…

…SOVd} = 1.92 + 0.74 \times \text{BSA} ) Definition of aortic aneurysm Sinus of Valsalva 45 mm. Any other segment 40 mm in diameter…

…8% Interpretation of ATRIA risk score. Comparison with other bleeding risk models Several bleeding risk assessment tools exist for patients with AF, including HAS BLED…

…chadsva] The CHA₂DS₂ VA score has superseded the CHA₂DS₂ VASc score. As of 2025, it is recommended to use the CHA₂DS₂ VA score for stroke…

…1 point, with a maximum score of 9. The score takes into account various risk factors that contribute to bleeding risk, including uncontrolled hypertension, impaired…

…3 Interpretation of HEMORR₂HAGES score. Comparison with ATRIA and HAS BLED Scores Several studies have compared the predictive performance of HEMORR₂HAGES with other bleeding risk…