…history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre. Indications Brief attacks of vertigo, seconds…

…are balanced and no ischemia occurs. (Some individuals display a benign form of ischemia located in the subendocardium during exercise; this manifests with ST segment…

…targeted examination. The patient's description of the quality of the dizziness — rotatory vertigo, unsteadiness or faintness — discriminates poorly between dangerous and benign causes. Ask…

…Dark skin: a risk of permanent hypopigmentation. Areas with poor circulation, above all the lower leg in a patient with peripheral arterial disease or diabetes…

…table below shows a systematic history taking in patients presenting with chest pain (chest discomfort) or other symptoms suggestive of the five conditions listed above…

…Thromboembolism). There are genetic syndromes that result in the emergence of multiple myxomas. Papillary fibroelastoma Papillary fibroelastoma is benign primary tumors affecting adults. These tumors…

…confused a completely benign condition (male/female pattern) with a condition which is associated with 5 times as great a risk of sudden cardiac death…

…causes left posterior fascicular block (LPFB) . In a fascicular block, the myocardium without fascicular supply will depend on impulses spreading from other parts of the…

…mentioned below are discussed in detail in other chapters, to which links are provided throughout the text. Heart rate During the first week of life…

…is benign and the most common cause of sinus arrest/pause. It commonly affects younger individuals who endure intense emotional stress, acute pain or other…

…Low voltage in limb leads. Click to zoom. Figure 4. Sinus bradycardia. Click to zoom. Treatment of sinus bradycardia Benign causes of sinus bradycardia (e…

…once the exercise is stopped. Some experts believe that these ST segment depressions represent a benign form of subendocardial ischemia. Refer to Exercise Stress Testing…

…tachycardias should be considered pathological and the task is to clarify the cause of the tachycardia. The cause may range from benign to highly malignant…

…other situations than does ventricular rhythm; idioventricular rhythm is primarily seen after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of…

…ventricular fibrillation. The combination of early repolarization pattern on ECG and ventricular fibrillation or sudden cardiac arrest is referred to as early repolarization syndrome . Early…

…Any type of infarction may cause pathological R wave progression. However, the specificity for pathological R wave progression is considerably lower than pathological Q waves…

…Lathundar Key messages Two things set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…is characterized by several principles: Lower LDL C is associated with lower ASCVD risk across the range studied, including concentrations below 1.4 mmol/L…

…begins in parallel with the diagnostic work up. Obtain an interpretable 12 lead ECG within 10 minutes of first medical contact, attach continuous rhythm monitoring…

…acetylsalicylic acid at the first sign of skin rash, mucosal lesions, or hypersensitivity. Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…C and other apoB containing lipoproteins within the arterial wall. This initiates inflammatory reactions that promote plaque formation and progression. As the burden of retained…

…aggregation. Because aspirin affects only one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Other cardiopulmonary causes , including myopericardial…

…with homozygous FH typically die from acute myocardial infarction at 20 to 30 years of age. People with familial hypercholesterolemia have no other metabolic aberration…

…from selected populations, frequently with low or intermediate ischemic risk and under representation of patients with STEMI or other very high risk features. Noninferiority studies…

…monoamine oxidase inhibitor crisis, cocaine intoxication, or other sympathomimetic exposure, including methamphetamine. Abrupt withdrawal of antihypertensive medication, particularly clonidine, can also precipitate a hypertensive crisis…

…arteries. It frequently coexists with left main coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous…

…a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have concomitant coronary, cerebrovascular or other peripheral arterial…

…coronary syndrome Reinfarction reduced by approximately 30–40%; death reduced by approximately 35–45% Peripheral artery disease Lower risk of progression to chronic limb threat

…beats per minute. Note that with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2…

…each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest left…

…myocardial ischemia. Other symptoms include dyspnea, pain radiating to the left arm/shoulder/throat, palpitations, back pain and selected cases of upper abdominal pain. An…

…1). This is possible by using two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves…

…tomographic images of the left ventricle. In PET (Positron Emission Tomography), radiotracers emit positrons. When a positron collides with an electron, they annihilate each other…

…opposite angle of observation. Other vectors may interfere with the injury currents, and inhibit them from being detected by leads with opposite angles of observation…

…more reliable (the risk of cardiac arrest is considerably lower). Moreover, ventricular escape rhythms are slow, resulting in reduced cardiac output and risk of hypoperfusion…

…at the end of expiration, with the tape horizontal and without compressing the skin. Ratios and other measurements Measurement Calculation Threshold : : : Waist–hip ratio Waist…

…the bleeding risk of the procedure and by renal function. In markedly reduced renal function (dabigatran at eGFR <30 mL/min, the other DOACs at…

…marrow — choose the other side). A patient who cannot lie still — plan for sedation rather than abandoning the procedure. Choice of site The posterior superior…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…high grade AV block without pacemaker protection. Asthma and other marked obstructive airways disease — relative; the risk of bronchospasm is real. Hypotension and haemodynamic instability…

…g × 3 IV 8 days including oral step down Hospital acquired pneumonia, severe piperacillin–tazobactam 4 g × 4 IV Exacerbation of COPD with an indication…

…Common manifestations are hypertensive encephalopathy, intracerebral haemorrhage, acute coronary syndrome, acute left ventricular failure with pulmonary oedema, acute aortic syndrome, acute kidney injury, microangiopathic haemolysis…

…physical activity and any other precipitating factor. Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…A markedly raised GGT with the other tests normal is most often enzyme induction by alcohol or drugs and is often of no clinical significance…

…pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive treatments can blunt the febrile response…

…most superficially, where the distance from the skin is shortest, and where no liver, lung or vessel lies in the path of the needle. Access…

…treatment — modification of loading, eccentric exercise, an NSAID, an orthosis — has not given a sufficient effect. Contraindications Absolute: Cellulitis, a skin wound or other infection…

…preferably anteroposteriorly : one anteriorly over the praecordium to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine…

…Heart failure, pulmonary oedema and other conditions with a high risk of fluid overload — a relative contraindication requiring invasive monitoring and slower administration. Significant metabolic…

…SOVd} = 1.92 + 0.74 \times \text{BSA} ) Definition of aortic aneurysm Sinus of Valsalva 45 mm. Any other segment 40 mm in diameter…

…8% Interpretation of ATRIA risk score. Comparison with other bleeding risk models Several bleeding risk assessment tools exist for patients with AF, including HAS BLED…

…chadsva] The CHA₂DS₂ VA score has superseded the CHA₂DS₂ VASc score. As of 2025, it is recommended to use the CHA₂DS₂ VA score for stroke…

…1 point, with a maximum score of 9. The score takes into account various risk factors that contribute to bleeding risk, including uncontrolled hypertension, impaired…

…3 Interpretation of HEMORR₂HAGES score. Comparison with ATRIA and HAS BLED Scores Several studies have compared the predictive performance of HEMORR₂HAGES with other bleeding risk…