…ischaemia Paraplegia or paraparesis Persistent or recurrent pain Hypertension that remains uncontrolled despite optimal therapy Acute type A dissection has a particularly rapid early mortality…

…causing a precipitous drop in haemoglobin, or a sustained tachyarrhythmia—may result in insufficient blood flow to meet the increased myocardial oxygen demand, precipitating Type…

…Sample type and baseline values An arterial blood gas is the reference method when the question concerns oxygenation, precise ventilation or severe respiratory failure. A…

…exists Type and screen (BAS test) Blood group confirmation and antibody screening. If the screen is negative, a unit is selected electronically against the blood…

…Haemodynamic measurements become interpretable only when related to one another. A low blood pressure may be due to low flow, low vascular tone or both…

Cardiology Emergency medicine Definition and Pathophysiology A hypertensive emergency is severe blood pressure elevation accompanied by acute hypertension mediated target organ damage (HMOD). The European…

Echocardiography Cardiomyopathy caused by tachycardia A prolonged tachycardia can cause cardiomyopathy with left ventricular dilation. This type of cardiomyopathy, referred to as tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy…

…decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood pressure, lipids…

…penetrating arteries) : This is the most common type of ischaemic stroke, resulting from the occlusion of small penetrating arteries that provide blood to deep structures…

…the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation. Because color Doppler is a type of pulsed wave Doppler, it is limited by the Nyquist limit…

…particularly ascending or type A aortic dissection Myocardial free wall rupture after infarction Anticoagulant associated bleeding Renal failure Systemic inflammatory disease Catheter based electrophysiological and…

…as a substitute for mobilisation and bladder training. Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected urethral injury — blood at the meatus, a perineal or scrotal haematoma, a…

…the rhythm through the cable, not through the pads. A pulse oximeter, a blood pressure cuff, and an arterial line for prolonged pacing. Venous access…

…function is also fundamental to global cardiac function. Diastolic dysfunction results in a special type of heart failure, referred to as heart failure with preserved…

…lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The principal drugs identified in the source material are canagliflozin, dapagliflozin and empagliflozin; sotagliflozin is a related dual…

…Presentation and Symptoms The characteristic symptom prompting activation of the STEMI pathway is ischaemic type chest discomfort, although dyspnoea may also be a presenting feature…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

…discharged near the atrioventricular node, the atria will be depolarized in the opposite direction and thus generate a negative (retrograde) P wave (Figure 2). Thus…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…the coronary arteries or coronary microcirculation. These abnormalities can produce a transient and reversible mismatch between myocardial oxygen demand and blood supply, generally during exertion…

…Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation) , a type of ECLS, operates by drawing venous blood from the patient to an oxygenator (gas exchanger), where it undergoes oxygenation and…

…in COPD Arterial blood gas Type 1 respiratory failure: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with a normal or low PaCO₂ — a problem of oxygenation. Type 2:…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…inhibitor therapy. Biomarkers and Laboratory Findings Monitoring renal function and potassium is a critical component of ACE inhibitor therapy. Blood pressure (including postural changes), renal…

…SCAD differs pathogenetically from atherosclerotic type 1 MI. It is an infrequent cause of ACS overall but represents a substantial proportion of ACS presentations in…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…output and blood pressure, rather than ECG, are the strongest predictors of adverse outcomes. Non acute or asymptomatic bradycardia Non acute bradycardia is a common…

…ECG is a better marker of reperfusion than angiography itself. Studies have shown that angiographic blood flow does not always correlate with myocardial perfusion on…

…a longer symptomatic course Consciousness Usually preserved, but may be impaired in severe DKA Cognitive impairment is more common, particularly at very high osmolality Blood…

…these patients exhibit hypotension—often with a systolic blood pressure less than 90 mmHg—accompanied by signs of poor vital organ perfusion or frank shock…

…Place a second tampon if necessary so that the nasal cavity is completely filled. 6. Observe for 10 minutes and check the pharynx — blood running…

…and blood culture bottles. Suction and oxygen to hand. The patient sits leaning forward with the arms on a table for diagnostic and therapeutic aspiration…

…after the menopausal transition. Women with type 2 diabetes also have a higher prevalence of cardiovascular complications and death than men. Despite the effectiveness of…

…supported patterns are Mediterranean type and DASH style diets. Their effects are multidimensional and cannot be adequately inferred from changes in a single intermediate marker…

…is a practical initial strategy. Assessment Before Prescription Physical activity should be assessed and prescribed using the components of: Frequency Intensity Time or duration Type…

…include familial hyperaldosteronism type 1, formerly termed glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism, and other familial forms associated with adrenal adenoma or bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. A family history…

…Figure 3. Prognosis in aortic stenosis according to type of stenosis. The patients with low flow (stroke volume index <35 ml/m²) and low gradient…

…chest pain is more easily provoked after a meal because food intake redistributes blood to the gastrointestinal tract which reduces blood availability in the heart…

…needle (iliac crest or sternal needle with stylet) and a Jamshidi type biopsy needle. Syringes: a small 5–10 mL syringe for the first aspirate…

…is very typical during reperfusion and in that scenario it is a good prognostic marker because it signals that coronary blood flow has been restored…

…to this cell type, and these terms are used interchangeably. Cardiac cell architecture In contrast to skeletal muscle, cardiac cells display a branch like morphology…

…is likely a typo; standard practice uses the ratio directly (e.g., 2:1, not 200%). Conclusion Echocardiographic calculation of Qp/Qs is a cornerstone…

Echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): from pathophysiology to echocardiography Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a genetic disorder that causes left ventricular hypertrophy under normal loading conditions. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy…

…types I and III, elastin, and proteoglycans [6] . This matrix forms a fibrous cap that sequesters the highly thrombogenic lipid core from the flowing blood…

…These conditions are referred to as atrial enlargement and ventricular enlargement . From a hemodynamic standpoint, there are two types of enlargement, namely hypertrophy and dilatation…

…or in children. A rolled towel to place under the wrist, and tape to secure the hand. Positioning: the wrist extended about 30–45 degrees…

…Unna boot), or a class 2–3 compression stocking. Tape measure for ankle circumference — this governs the choice of material and bandaging technique. Procedure Assessment…

…vasodilatation. Dobutamine is a synthetic catecholamine. Indications, dosing and effects Note that abrupt changes in blood pressure activate autonomic reflexes that influence the haemodynamic result…

…Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major cardiovascular risk condition. It is associated with a two to four fold…

…to apolipoprotein(a). The length of apolipoprotein(a) varies because of genetically determined differences in the number of kringle IV type 2 repeats. Lp(a)…

…Mobitz type 1 block generally does not progress to more advanced blocks. Should it progress to more advanced blocks, which typically is due to a…

…may be biphasic (diphasic) in V1 (the negative deflection should be <1 mm). It may have a prominent second hump in the inferior limb leads …

…Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Pathophysiology Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a hepatic protein that regulates the availability of the low density lipoprotein…

…is relevant for medical prognostication as it serves as a quick, low cost, and reliable screening tool for body composition, risk of type 2 diabetes…

…Many with type 2 Mealtime insulin (rapid acting) Covers the carbohydrate in the meal Anyone who is eating Correction dose (rapid acting) Corrects a currently…

[calc_hasbled] The HAS BLED score is a widely recognized and validated tool used to assess the one year risk of major bleeding in patients…

…Definition and therapeutic rationale Inclisiran is a liver directed small interfering RNA (siRNA) designed to reduce production of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9)…

…following ECG findings is typically considered a normal variant in asymptomatic athletes with no significant family history? A: Mobitz Type II 2nd AV block B…

Cardiology Clinical chemistry & laboratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology B type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N terminal pro BNP (NT proBNP) are circulating markers of myocardial…

…of type 2 diabetes mellitus Atherosclerotic cardiovascular events HF and atrial fibrillation Obesity therefore acts both as an independent cardiovascular risk factor and as a…