Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major cardiovascular risk condition. It is associated with a two to four…

…pharmacological basis Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a class of oral agents initially developed for glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)…

…cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure, congenital heart disease, diabetes mellitus (both type 1 and type 2), obesity, smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease…

…shift. For decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood…

…thrombosis for clinical research and outcome assessment. Predisposing factors Domain Factors associated with stent thrombosis Clinical Acute myocardial infarction, diabetes mellitus, renal failure, heart failure…

…7] . The dominant risk factors for HFpEF include hypertension (present in 80% of cases), obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease (CKD), sedentary lifestyle…

…prothrombotic state Albuminuria and declining estimated glomerular filtration rate Development of type 2 diabetes mellitus Atherosclerotic cardiovascular events HF and atrial fibrillation Obesity therefore acts…

…and potassium should be evaluated within 1 to 2 weeks after initiation of ACE inhibitors, especially in patients with preexisting azotemia, hypotension, hyponatremia, diabetes mellitus…

…of type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome and specific cancers. BMI and cardiovascular outcomes High BMI is associated with several health conditions: Type 2 diabetes Hypertension…

…mosm/kg or total osmolality 320 mosm/kg Typical patient Often type 1 diabetes, but also occurs in type 2 diabetes Usually type 2 diabetes…

…DKA: remove the pump and change to an infusion or injections Drugs for type 2 diabetes in inpatients Agent The acutely ill inpatient : : Metformin Stop…

…distinction is important in premature coronary disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes and hyperlipidaemia, which are usually polygenic conditions, although family history remains clinically useful for…

…treatment. It is associated with lower cardiovascular and all cause mortality and with reduced incidence or burden of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, coronary disease, stroke…

…unilateral adrenal hyperplasia Rare aldosterone producing adrenal carcinoma Less commonly, ectopic aldosterone production Familial forms include familial hyperaldosteronism type 1, formerly termed glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism…

…rate among patients with elevated troponin I was 51.2%, as compared with 4.5% among patients without evidence of myocardial injury (normal troponin I…

…mg daily or an equivalent dose of another statin. Approximately 45% of participants had type 2 diabetes. Over a median follow up of 40.6…

…diabetes and obesity become increasingly prevalent after the menopausal transition. Women with type 2 diabetes also have a higher prevalence of cardiovascular complications and death…

…of cancer, heart failure, obesity, type 2 diabetes and physical inactivity. The increased use of computed tomography (CT), and improvements in CT techniques, have increased…

…Unna boot), or a class 2–3 compression stocking. Tape measure for ankle circumference — this governs the choice of material and bandaging technique. Procedure Assessment…

…LV DIMENSIONS LV diastolic diameter 3.9–5.3 5.4–5.7 5.8–6.1 6.2 4.2–5.9 6.0…

…54–74% 52–72% Left ventricle, diastolic diameter 3.9–5.3 cm 4.2–5.8 cm Wall thickness (septum, posterior wall) ≤ 0.9…

…or as a substitute for mobilisation and bladder training. Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected urethral injury — blood at the meatus, a perineal or scrotal haematoma…

…by impaired left ventricular systolic function. It should be noted that several types of cardiomyopathies ( e.g ischemic cardiomyopathy, tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy, diabetic cardiomyopathy, etc…

…Calculation : The original formula’s inclusion of “ 100” for Qp/Qs is likely a typo; standard practice uses the ratio directly (e.g., 2:1…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 myocardial infarction (MI) is defined as an ischaemic myocardial injury occurring in the context of a…

…in 2 to 1 block it may be impossible to observe a PR prolongation. ECG examples of AV block II, Mobitz type II Figure 1…

…must be started immediately. The risk of circulatory collapse is highest with AV block 2 Mobitz type 2 and AV block 3. The only treatment…

…to apolipoprotein(a). The length of apolipoprotein(a) varies because of genetically determined differences in the number of kringle IV type 2 repeats. Lp(a)…

Echocardiography Aortic stenosis The aortic valve area is normally 3.0 to 4.0 cm 2 . Aortic stenosis is a progressive disease that leads to…

…cells but its appearance varies depending on cell type. During de and repolarization ions (Na + [sodium], K + [potassium] and Ca 2+ [calcium]) flow back and…

…pressure without affecting cardiac filling pressures. • Clevidipine is more effective than nitroglycerin, nitroprusside, and nicardipine in hypertensive emergencies. Time to onset of action 2 4…

…Type II 2nd AV block, prolonged QT interval, and profound sinus bradycardia are typically considered abnormal or profound findings that may require further investigation. 2…

…It may be broken, as in Figure 1 . Any type of infarction may cause pathological R wave progression. However, the specificity for pathological R wave…

…Arterial blood gas Type 1 respiratory failure: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with a normal or low PaCO₂ — a problem of oxygenation. Type 2: PaO₂ <…

…pacing — pads applied but the device not switched on — in second degree AV block Mobitz type 2, newly discovered complete heart block without current symptoms…

…Brugada syndrome. Refer to Figure 2 for ECG example of type 1 Brugada syndrome (note the large J waves in V2–V3). Figure 2. Brugada…

…type 1 . May also be referred to as Wenckebach block . Second degree AV block Mobitz type 2 . Second degree AV block (particularly Mobitz type 2…

…from second degree AV block Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach block) is uncommon. However, second degree AV block Mobitz type 2 frequently progresses to third degree…

…Dofetilide, Ibutilide, Sotalol Class IV Non dihydropyridine L type Ca 2+ channel blockers Diltiazem, Verapamil Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. Bold text indicates…

…Dofetilide, Ibutilide, Sotalol Class IV Non dihydropyridine L type Ca 2+ channel blockers Diltiazem, Verapamil Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. Bold text indicates…

…score A score of 0 1 indicates low risk A score of 2 suggests moderate risk A score of 3 or higher indicates high risk…

…pressure without affecting cardiac filling pressures. • Clevidipine is more effective than nitroglycerin, nitroprusside, and nicardipine in hypertensive emergencies. Time to onset of action 2 4…

…whereas Types 2–5 MI have other mechanisms of myocardial ischaemia and necrosis. Unstable angina (UA) represents myocardial ischaemia without demonstrable acute cardiomyocyte injury or…

…disturbance caused by other machines/devices. Below follows ECG tracings demonstrating each type of failure. Figure 1. Failure to pace. Figure 2. Failure to sense…

…further divided into the following categories: Lacunar stroke or lacunar infarct (occlusion of small penetrating arteries) : This is the most common type of ischaemic stroke…

…Doppler. Figure 2. Color Doppler reveals the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation. Because color Doppler is a type of pulsed wave Doppler, it…

…pressure without affecting cardiac filling pressures. • Clevidipine is more effective than nitroglycerin, nitroprusside, and nicardipine in hypertensive emergencies. Time to onset of action 2 4…

…of the natural course of myocardial infarction (refer to Figure 2 below). However, that type of normalization is much slower and it is explained by…

…injury and type 2 infarction is particularly important. Type 2 infarction requires clinical evidence of ischaemia; an elevated and dynamically changing troponin concentration without evidence…

…considerations Type 1 Contrast staining of the arterial wall with multiple lumens or radiolucent channels The classic appearance and usually readily recognized Type 2 Long…

…UA has precipitously declined, as many cases previously classified as UA are now recognized as micro infarctions (NSTEMI) [8] . Type 1 vs. Type 2 Myoca

…respiratory disturbance, by contrast, develops over hours to days [1,2]. Six steps Step Question Practical interpretation : : : 1 Is the pH low or high? pH…

…and QRS 110 ms. Brugada pattern type 1: ST elevation ≥ 2 mm of coved type with a negative T wave in V1–V2. Early repolarisation:…

…a head lamp. Without a visible source, no cautery. 2. Insert 2–3 pledgets with lidocaine and a vasoconstrictor vertically into the nose. Wait 10…

…single most important tool when intubation fails, since it restores oxygenation without requiring a view down into the larynx. The difficult airway rarely kills because…

…surgery — it prolongs the time to return of bowel function without reducing the risk of complications. Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected base of skull fracture…

Procedurer Almost all the complications of pleural aspiration arise from two errors: the needle is placed in the wrong site, and too much is drained…

…characteristics: (1) heart rate 50–100 beats per minute; (2) P wave precedes every QRS complex; (3) the P wave is positive in lead II…

…monophosphate (cAMP), which in turn reduces the L type calcium current (Ica.L) and the pacemaker current (If) in sinus node cells, accompanied by a…

…characteristics: (1) heart rate 50–100 beats per minute; (2) P wave precedes every QRS complex; (3) the P wave is positive in lead II…