Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Primary aldosteronism (PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased…

…onset time and anticipated time to primary PCI. Patients with STEMI should be monitored in a setting capable of continuous rhythm surveillance and immediate res

…other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and secondary prevention is fundamental: Primary prevention refers to individuals without established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), coronary artery…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Scope Primary prevention aims to prevent the clinical manifestation of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in individuals without established clinical CVD. It…

Mitral valve regurgitation Primary parameters Mild regurgiation Moderate regurgitation Severe regurgitation Vena contracta (cm) < 0,3 0,3 0,69 0,69 EROA (cm²…

Tricuspid valve regurgitation Primary parameters Mild regurgiation Moderate regurgitation Severe regurgitation PISA radius < 0,6 0,6 0,9 0,9 Vena contracta (cm…

Procedurer Two recordings that are performed in primary care but interpreted as specialist investigations. Both fail more often for practical than for medical reasons: the…

…Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is the commonest cause of vertigo in primary care and one of the few diagnoses that can be cured on the…

…UA) Non ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) This applies to patients undergoing either primary or delayed percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)…

…the distinction from primary dilated cardiomyopathy particularly difficult. When present, the clinical picture may include: Symptoms attributable to chronic LV systolic dysfunction and HF Angina…

…and acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Its principal therapeutic objective is reduction of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C), the primary lipid target in contemporary secondary…

…Primary hyperaldosteronism is identified as the most frequent cause, comprising approximately 20–25% of secondary hypertension cases. Coarctation of the aorta and renovascular disease are…

…diagnoses, evaluation and management Chest pain is one of the most common symptoms in the emergency department, as well as in primary health care. The…

…a primary inherited arrhythmia syndrome, BrS is characterized by a distinct electrocardiographic (ECG) signature—coved ST segment elevation in the right precordial leads—and a…

…primary energy source. ATP is produced by metabolizing carbohydrates (glucose), fats or proteins, whichever is available. ATP fuels all cellular functions, such as contraction and…

…and monitor risk prospectively. Strong risk factors serve as useful predictors in prediction models. Targeting risk factors has been very successful in the primary and…

…cardiovascular medicine. As a primary driver of sudden cardiac death (SCD) and a major cause of morbidity in patients with structural heart disease, VT necessitates…

…the cavity and its distance to vessels. Contraindications and when to involve a surgeon The following locations must not be handled routinely in primary care…

…simple disorder, or two opposing primary disorders It is therefore not enough to ask which of the pCO₂ and the HCO₃ deviates most. What matters…

…can be silent despite perforation. Sources Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline on the diagnosis and treatment of primary adrenal insufficiency. The summary of product characteristics…

…examination is associated with a sense of exposure, and technically correct performance is only half the task. The examination must be preceded by information about…

…mask: A rescue airway when intubation has failed and bag mask ventilation is difficult or inadequate. The primary airway in cardiac arrest when the person…

…and AST ↑↑, ALP normal Viral hepatitis, drugs, alcohol, autoimmune hepatitis, ischaemic hepatitis, steatohepatitis Cholestatic ALP and GGT ↑↑, bilirubin ↑ Gallstones, stricture, tumour, primary…

…respond to maximal ACTH stimulation, and it is rarely the injection itself that determines whether the result can be interpreted. What decides that is whether…

…hours for primary closure rests on weak evidence. More recent data suggest that clean, well cleaned wounds can be closed later than that, and on…

…widely used CHA₂DS₂ VASc score, with the primary distinction being the exclusion of sex parameter (female sex) as a risk factor. Rationale for the development…

Right ventricle and pulmonary artery Normal interval Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal RV DIMENSIONS Basal RV diameter (RVD 1), cm 2.0–2.8…

…survival benefit from primary prevention ICDs. Its dominance, though, owes as much to pragmatics as to discrimination: echocardiography is ubiquitous, standardized, and cheap to interpret…

…and abdomen, as well as dyspnea and nausea (anginal equivalents) [7]. Clinicians must consider both cardiac and non cardiac etiologies [1]. Cardiac Causes The primary…

…Its primary clinical utility in contemporary practice is late line therapy for patients who remain profoundly symptomatic despite optimal neurohormonal blockade and adequate volume control…

…become less prominent as a primary diagnostic test for obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD), because coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) and functional imaging have higher…

…treatment. In severe primary HTG, whether specialist lipid assessment is required. A comprehensive cardiovascular assessment should include review of modifiable risk factors and associated disease…

…media. Blood then propagates along the wall, creating a true lumen and a false lumen separated by an intimal flap. Propagation may be antegrade or…

…particularly primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). In a large epidemiological analysis, mechanical complications occurred in approximately 0.27% of STEMI cases and 0.06% of…

…across primary and secondary prevention. Observational evidence indicates that cessation lowers the risk of peripheral artery disease, myocardial infarction, premature death, recurrent infarction and limb…

…and haemodynamic stability. Selection of the reperfusion strategy Primary PCI as the preferred strategy Primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI) is preferred to fibrinolysis when the…

…by bradycardia. Most cases involve a mixed response of both hypotension and bradycardia. However, some patients exhibit a primary cardioinhibitory response with pronounced bradycardia. Most…

…and temporal onset. Distinguishing between acute and chronic hyponatremia, based on the rapidity of onset, is of paramount importance. The primary concern in correcting hyponatremia…

CPR Hyperthermia and malignant hyperthermia Hyperthermia is characterized by a body temperature exceeding the typical range of 36.5 37.6°C (97.7 99.7°F…

…Myxoma is the most common primary cardiac tumor. These tumors most often debute at the age of 30 60 years and are more common among…

…impulse conduction. 2. Calcium Hypercalcemia Causes of hypercalcaemia Primary hyperparathyroidism and malignancies cause 90% of all cases of hypercalcemia. Less common causes are immobilization, sarcoidosis…

…majority of cases, it is only possible to determine the ischemic/infarct area (and thus the culprit) if the ECG displays ST segment elevations. However…

…90–95% of individuals with hypertension have essential hypertension , also referred to as primary hypertension . Essential hypertension is defined as hypertension without an identifiable underlying…

…ventricle pumps against greater resistance and any disturbance in ventricular activation will reduce the efficiency of the pumping function. The primary ECG manifestations of conduction…

…and case fatality is most likely explained by successful primary preventive strategies, such as reduced smoking rates, aggressive lowering of blood lipids with statins and…

…and the resulting QT interval is referred to as corrected QT interval, or simply QTc interval. The primary hazard lies in long QTc intervals because…

…a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by the subendothelial accumulation of apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins, macrophage…

…half of the heart, it is important to familiarize yourself with the principles of hemodynamics and conditions prevailing on the right side. Echocardiography is the…

…the ST segment depression differs markedly in NSTE ACS and STE ACS. In NSTE ACS the ST segment depressions are the primary ischemic ECG changes…

…and reperfusion injury. Myocardial oxygen demand Myocardium can only function under aerobic conditions (oxygen is required for ATP synthesis [ATP is the primary energy source…

…2 to 24 hours After failed fibrinolysis Immediate rescue PCI The 120 minute limit is a ceiling for the choice between primary PCI and fibrinolysis…

…second attempt). Vasoactive infusions Drug Dose range Primary effect Used in : : : : Noradrenaline 0.05–0.5 µg/kg/min α₁ — vasoconstriction Septic and distributive shock

…The reference values below are taken from the consensus documents of the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI)…

…then 100 mg × 1 5–7 days Epiglottitis and other severe upper airway infection cefotaxime 1–2 g × 3 IV Depends on the diagnosis Always…

…9 ± 1.5 11.2 ± 1.4 Aortic regurgitation (AR) Primary parameters Mild regurgitation Moderate regurgitation Severe regurgitation Vena contracta (cm) < 0,3 0…

…takes into account the following variables: Maximum Left Ventricular Wall Thickness (MaxLVWT) : Hypertrophy is a hallmark of HCM and is associated with increased arrhythmic risk…

…primary PCI is indicated in patients with symptoms suggestive of acute myocardial infarction and at least one of the following criteria present: haemodynamic instability or…

…electrolyte abnormalities, such as thiazide and loop diuretics. Diagnostics Electrocardiogram (ECG) The ECG is the primary diagnostic tool for evaluating acquired QT prolongation. The upper…

…who were unable or unwilling to take statins. Approximately 70% were in secondary prevention and 30% in primary prevention; 23% were taking a small dose…