…Pneumothorax is characterized by the presence of free air in the thoracic cavity. While this can occasionally be benign and manifest even in healthy individuals…

…ventilation–perfusion matching, increased physiological dead space and the Haldane effect. It is therefore misleading to explain the whole phenomenon as abolition of the patie

…Doppler effect. When the sound source moves towards the observer, the sound waves are compressed, which leads to a shortening of the wavelength and thus…

…longer a joint remains dislocated, the harder the reduction becomes and the greater the risk of chondral and neurovascular injury. Aim for reduction within a…

…AV) blocks , subdivided according to the degree of block. First , second and third degree AV block may all be diagnosed using the ECG. First degree…

…tracer uptake plateaus. This saturation effect can lead to an underestimation of blood flow in regions affected by significant coronary artery disease, potentially resulting in…

…bradycardia is caused by beta blockers. Adrenaline (Epinephrine) α and β agonist Infusion of 2–10 μg/min (titrate as needed). T½ 5 min…

…pronounced symptoms and other therapies have failed. Patients with structural heart disease or reduced left ventricular function are not eligible. Effects of propafenone and flecainide…

…catheterization. This section discusses hemodynamic principles and how these can be leveraged to calculate stroke volume, cardiac output, pressure conditions, severity of stenoses and regurgitations…

…before revascularisation. Evaluation of treatment effect in stable angina. Exercise induced arrhythmia or exercise induced syncope. Assessment of chronotropic function and pacemaker settings. Preoperative functional…

…digital block Anaesthetise from the dorsal aspect, one injection medial and one lateral to the base of the phalanx, 2–3 mL on each side…

…and assess the effect before the next one is given. The serious incidents almost always arise when the principle of titration is abandoned — when a…

…lowers blood pressure by inhibiting ACE. Effects • The hypotensive effect of enalaprilat depends on plasma volume and plasma renin activity. Volume depletion and high plasma…

…vulnerability and the risk of future plaque rupture. Anatomical severity versus functional significance The physiological effect of a coronary lesion depends on more than its…

…minutes . 4. Give 2 mg of edrophonium intravenously as a test dose . Observe pulse, blood pressure and muscle strength for a few minutes. 5. If…

…effect; it is part of the treatment itself. Indications Salicylate poisoning with symptoms or a rising serum concentration. Alkalinisation increases renal elimination several fold and…

…for vascular smooth muscle cells and has little or no effect on myocardial contractility or conduction. Clevidipine reduces mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) by decreasing…

…perioperative tachycardia) and hypertension (including hypertensive emergency, perioperative hypertension). Mechanism of action • Relatively cardioselective (beta 1 receptor blocker) beta blocker with ultra short acting effect…

…This side effect lasts a few seconds. Case reports have indicated that the risk of high degree AV block and ventricular arrhythmias is greater in…

…of pulmonary involvement in systemic disease, for example rheumatoid arthritis or scleroderma, and during treatment with pulmonary toxic drugs. Contraindications Forced expiration raises the pressure…

…effect. 2. Parenteral thiamine early , preferably before or at the same time as carbohydrate administration. 3. Rapid identification of seizures, delirium tremens, infection, trauma and…

…pressure. Maximum infusion rate 25 mg/hour. Adverse effects Tachycardia. Flushing. Headache. Angina pectoris. Caution Heart failure. Angina pectoris (ischemic heart disease). Hydralazine doses and…

…Their effects are multidimensional and cannot be adequately inferred from changes in a single intermediate marker such as cholesterol. Dietary composition may influence blood pressure…

…inhibitor of the If, or “funny,” current in sinoatrial node pacemaker cells. This current is a mixed inward Na⁺/K⁺ current activated by hyperpolarisation and…

…pressure/volume by increasing its contractility. The Frank Starling mechanism is amplified by the positive inotropic effects of the sympathetic stimulation. Increased stroke volume and…

…of blood flow. However, the Doppler effect can also be used to study myocardial motion. Myocardial motion during systole and diastole alter the frequency of…

…and lowers pulmonary artery pressure without increasing myocardial oxygen consumption. The inotropic effect of levosimendan is not affected by the concurrent use of beta blockers…

…local availability. Betamethasone (Betapred 4 mg/mL) is water soluble and short acting, not a depot preparation, and gives a shorter duration of effect. Lidocaine…

…5–7.5 cmH₂O Increase in steps of 2.5 to 10–12.5 cmH₂O according to tolerance and effect SpO₂ 94–98% COPD exacerbation…

…systolic blood pressure. A value of around 0.9 to 1.0 or higher in an adult trauma patient suggests significant hypovolaemia and an increased…

…Warfarin has a narrow therapeutic index, a half life of several days and more than a hundred clinically relevant interactions. What determines whether the treatment…

…oxygen consumption and myocardial contractility. Less pronounced blood pressure lowering effect than esmolol and labetalol. Time to onset of action 20 minutes Duration of action…

Nitroglycerin Patients using nitroglycerin regularly may have developed tolerance and require higher doses, alternatively nitroprusside to achieve desirable blood pressure lowring effect. Drug Nitroglycerin Brand…

…with increased risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and stent thrombosis. Premature DAPT interruption is described as the strongest predictor of stent thrombosis in…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Chronotropic incompetence: inability to adequately increase heart rate Chronotropic incompetence is an independent predictor of overall and cardiovascular mortality. The condition…

…2 adrenoceptors in the ventromedial and rostral ventrolateral areas of the medulla result in the blood pressure lowering effect. Effects Potent blood pressure lowering effect…

…This mechanism differs from that of the monoclonal antibodies alirocumab and evolocumab, which bind circulating PCSK9. The prolonged intracellular effect of inclisiran permits subcutaneous administration…

…reconsidered if bradycardia is a side effect of the medication. Often, the medication must be continued despite the emergence of bradycardia (e.g beta blockers…

…the duration of effect, the dosing, the adverse effects and the important precautions. A hypertensive emergency is defined by a markedly raised blood pressure in…

…and duration. Functional limitation and effect on activities of daily living. Workload or exertion required to provoke symptoms. Response to current antianginal therapy. Adverse effects…

…to onset of action: 5 minutes. Effects Lowers blood pressure, reduces heart rate, myocardial oxygen consumption and myocardial contractility. Time to onset of action 5…

…of kidney function in a manner that extends beyond the reduction of systemic arterial pressure. This renoprotective effect involves a reduction in intraglomerular hyperfiltration and…

…one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and secondary…

…Venturi or “suction” effect have been proposed as mechanisms of inducible ischaemia. The functional impact depends on the bridge’s thickness, length, depth, and location…

…The presence of ASCVD, peripheral arterial disease or aortic disease. Secondary causes, particularly diabetes, thyroid disease, kidney disease, alcohol excess, dietary factors and relevant medications…

…to BNP and NT proBNP in heart failure (HF). The biologically active natriuretic peptides promote vasodilation, renal sodium and water excretion, and reduction of cardiac…

…all of the beta blocking activity. Sotalol does not block alpha adrenoceptors and lacks sodium channel blocking activity, meaning it exerts no membrane stabilizing effects…

…increased workload STATUS OF CORONARY ARTERY SETTING EFFECT ECG REACTION Normal coronary artery (no atherosclerosis) At rest Oxygen supply is adequate and ischemia cannot occur…

…pharynx and lidocaine gel for the electrode. A glass of water with a straw, a vomit bowl, tissues, suction. Monitoring with ECG, blood pressure and…

…of skin rash, mucosal lesions, or hypersensitivity. Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit platelet function and enhance the effect…

…causes dilation of the coronary and systemic arteries, decreases total peripheral resistance, decreases systemic blood pressure, and decreases afterload. Nicardipine has antianginal and antihypertensive effects…

…remains the foundation of lipid lowering treatment for patients with chronic coronary syndrome, acute coronary syndrome (ACS), atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease, and other very high…

…predominantly a pressure derived index of the functional effect of an epicardial stenosis. CFR reflects the combined influence of epicardial stenosis, resting flow and microvascular…

…be generated during exercise. Effect of preload and afterload on ejection fraction Ejection fraction is highly dependent on preload and afterload. A rapid increase in…

…in order to assess the presence of myocardial ischemia, evaluate angina pectoris, evaluate exercise performance, evaluate the effect of interventions and medications, and prognosticate survival…

…cachexia) rather than a protective effect of adiposity. Etiology and underlying causes The etiology of HFrEF is broadly dichotomized into ischemic and non ischemic causes…

…causes dilation of the coronary and systemic arteries, decreases total peripheral resistance, decreases systemic blood pressure, and decreases afterload. Nicardipine has antianginal and antihypertensive effects…

…contraindications, and subject preparations. We will also discuss the relevance of withholding specific cardioactive medications during exercise testing (exercise ECG). Indications for exercise stress test…

…after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of drugs, hypoxia, myocarditis and electrolyte disorders. Because the rate (60–100…

…empty stomach may provide the fastest onset of effect. Do not crush or split the tablet . Warnings and Precautions Bleeding Risk In the phase 3…