…In life threatening haemorrhage without a valid blood group, give group O RhD negative blood (always RhD negative to women of childbearing age) while awaiting…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major cardiovascular risk condition. It is associated with a two to four…

…result in insufficient blood flow to meet the increased myocardial oxygen demand, precipitating Type 2 MI. It is also crucial to distinguish Type 2 MI…

…commonly, retrograde. Distal re entry tears may allow blood to return to the true lumen, whereas disruption of the adventitia can result in rupture. An…

…Mobitz type 1 block is characterized by a gradual prolongation of the PR interval over a few heart cycles until an atrial impulse is completely…

Visual assessment of regional wall motion (left ventricle) TYPE OF MOTION DEFINITION WALL MOTION SCORE Normal Normal thickening (typically 30% thickening from end diastole to…

Cardiology Clinical chemistry & laboratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology B type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N terminal pro BNP (NT proBNP) are circulating markers of myocardial…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Pathophysiology Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a hepatic protein that regulates the availability of the low density…

…decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood pressure, lipids…

Echocardiography Cardiomyopathy caused by tachycardia A prolonged tachycardia can cause cardiomyopathy with left ventricular dilation. This type of cardiomyopathy, referred to as tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy …

…muscle, and bone mass. It does not indicate the types or distribution of body fat. It may not be accurate for all populations, particularly at…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…Definition and therapeutic rationale Inclisiran is a liver directed small interfering RNA (siRNA) designed to reduce production of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9)…

…to apolipoprotein(a). The length of apolipoprotein(a) varies because of genetically determined differences in the number of kringle IV type 2 repeats. Lp(a)…

…Type 4a MI after PCI In a patient with normal baseline cTn, type 4a MI is defined by: cTn greater than 5 times the 99th…

… A: Mobitz Type II 2nd AV block B: Prolonged QT interval (QTc ≥ 480 ms for females) C: Incomplete Right Bundle Branch Block (rSR' pattern in…

…pharmacological basis Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a class of oral agents initially developed for glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)…

…It is a PCI related myocardial infarction when angiography or autopsy documents thrombosis and the diagnostic criteria used for type 1 myocardial infarction are fulfilled…

…risk factors, type of symptoms etc. Chest pain is one of the most nuanced symptoms in clinical practice and it is fundamental to be able…

…by a repolarization (recovery). The action potential occurs in all cardiac cells but its appearance varies depending on cell type. During de and repolarization ions…

Echocardiography Definition and types of cardiomyopathies Cardiomyopathy implies that the myocardium is structurally and functionally altered, and the pathological changes are not explained by coronary…

…It may be broken, as in Figure 1 . Any type of infarction may cause pathological R wave progression. However, the specificity for pathological R wave…

…causes, diagnosis & management This article covers the fundamental principles of atrioventricular (AV) blocks, which are classified into three types: first degree, second degree, and third…

…Haemodynamic measurements become interpretable only when related to one another. A low blood pressure may be due to low flow, low vascular tone or both…

…severe DKA Cognitive impairment is more common, particularly at very high osmolality Blood ketones are preferable to urine ketones. The principal ketone body in DKA…

…Contraindications Cautery: Type Contraindication : : Absolute The source of bleeding cannot be identified Relative A pacemaker or ICD when monopolar electrocautery is used Relative A cochlear…

…high value As required, in addition to the mealtime dose Never stop basal insulin in a person with type 1 diabetes , not even before fasting…

…in COPD Arterial blood gas Type 1 respiratory failure: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with a normal or low PaCO₂ — a problem of oxygenation. Type 2:…

…Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected base of skull fracture or a marked midfacial fracture — the tube can pass through a fracture in the cribriform plate…

…Otherwise: Type Contraindication : : Absolute No safe pocket of fluid to puncture (no ultrasound verified fluid) Relative Uncorrected coagulopathy or thrombocytopenia Relative Ongoing anticoagulant treatment — plan…

…myocardial ischaemia or syncope — that has not responded to atropine: Complete heart block (third degree AV block) and second degree AV block Mobitz type 2…

…or as a substitute for mobilisation and bladder training. Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected urethral injury — blood at the meatus, a perineal or scrotal haematoma…

…Dofetilide, Ibutilide, Sotalol Class IV Non dihydropyridine L type Ca 2+ channel blockers Diltiazem, Verapamil Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. Bold text indicates…

…moderate predictive abilities for bleeding risks in AF patients, regardless of the type of oral anticoagulant used. Studies have shown that it performs similarly or…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…or pericardial effusion Aortic rupture Proximal aortic complications Malperfusion and pulse deficits are less common in type A IMH than in classic type A dissection…

…the coronary arteries or coronary microcirculation. These abnormalities can produce a transient and reversible mismatch between myocardial oxygen demand and blood supply, generally during exertion…

…monophosphate (cAMP), which in turn reduces the L type calcium current (Ica.L) and the pacemaker current (If) in sinus node cells, accompanied by a…

…red meat. The principal evidence supported patterns are Mediterranean type and DASH style diets. Their effects are multidimensional and cannot be adequately inferred from changes…

…distinction is important in premature coronary disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes and hyperlipidaemia, which are usually polygenic conditions, although family history remains clinically useful for…

…ischaemic ECG changes. The distinction between myocardial injury and type 2 infarction is particularly important. Type 2 infarction requires clinical evidence of ischaemia; an elevated…

…vasodilation. Although primarily defined by these mechanisms, levosimendan also exhibits some type 3 phosphodiesterase inhibitor (PDEI) activity, which may contribute to its inotropic profile. The…

…patient's dependence on pacing, the presence of CRT, the type and location of surgery, and the anticipated current pathway. In a pacing dependent patient…

…treatment. It is associated with lower cardiovascular and all cause mortality and with reduced incidence or burden of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, coronary disease, stroke…

…neurons and other tissues. This distribution helps explain why PA produces cardiovascular injury beyond its effects on blood pressure and potassium balance. The principal sporadic…

…coronary blood flow may produce myocardial ischaemia, acute coronary syndrome (ACS), myocardial infarction (MI), or, rarely, sudden cardiac death. SCAD differs pathogenetically from atherosclerotic type…

…of ischaemic symptoms. The immediate pathophysiological objective is restoration of blood flow to the infarct related myocardial territory and limitation of infarct size. The extent…

…to a single lesion or process. Although Type 1 MI and acute coronary syndromes are commonly related to atherothrombotic events, myocardial ischaemia may also result…

…Dofetilide, Ibutilide, Sotalol Class IV Non dihydropyridine L type Ca 2+ channel blockers Diltiazem, Verapamil Singh–Vaughan Williams classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. Bold text indicates…

ECG Pacemaker malfunction, troubleshooting and ECG Conventional surface ECG can reveal the following types of pacemaker dysfunction: Failure to capture (FTC) , which means that the…

…cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure, congenital heart disease, diabetes mellitus (both type 1 and type 2), obesity, smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease…

…penetrating arteries) : This is the most common type of ischaemic stroke, resulting from the occlusion of small penetrating arteries that provide blood to deep structures…

…the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation. Because color Doppler is a type of pulsed wave Doppler, it is limited by the Nyquist limit…

…Paper speed 50 mm/s. Type 1 Brugada syndrome reminds somewhat of right bundle branch block (RBBB) in leads V1–V3, but the QRS duration…

…Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation) , a type of ECLS, operates by drawing venous blood from the patient to an oxygenator (gas exchanger), where it undergoes oxygenation and…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…be considered a basic clinical skill. Pacing activity may be visible or invisible, depending on e.g the type of pacemaker, intrinsic cardiac activity, etc…

…that the patient's weight, height and sex are entered. RWT is a measure of the type of hypertrophy. Generally, hypertrophy is defined as wall…

…the left ventricle. This type of bradycardia is due to diminished automaticity (pacemaker function) in the sinoatrial node or conduction defects (e.g. second degree…

…the assessment of myocardial reperfusion The ECG is an invaluable tool to assess whether an occlusion has been resolved and blood flow has been restored…