…does not produce a proportional reduction in cardiovascular harm. Complete cessation is therefore the preferred therapeutic endpoint. The cardiovascular benefits of cessation extend across primary…

…abdominal obesity, and diabetes. Behavioural factors also make a substantial contribution to all cause mortality, while low educational attainment contributes materially to overall risk. The…

…heart failure armamentarium. Its use has declined over time due to the advent of more efficacious agents with wider therapeutic to toxic windows, and its…

Procedurer Warfarin has a narrow therapeutic index, a half life of several days and more than a hundred clinically relevant interactions. What determines whether the…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and therapeutic rationale Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid, is an antiplatelet drug that irreversibly inhibits cyclooxygenase and thereby suppresses thromboxane A2 synthesis…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Therapeutic Rationale Hypertension is a major risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and contributes to microvascular and macrovascular complications. It…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and therapeutic rationale Inclisiran is a liver directed small interfering RNA (siRNA) designed to reduce production of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and therapeutic rationale Multivessel coronary artery disease (CAD) refers to clinically significant atherosclerotic disease affecting two or more major epicardial…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and therapeutic objectives Antianginal therapy in chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) is directed primarily at reducing myocardial ischaemia and…

…and pathophysiology Low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Refractory angina is a chronic syndrome of persistent ischaemic symptoms despite the exhaustion of conventional therapeutic options…

…with downstream effects involving interleukin 6 and C reactive protein, has been a major therapeutic target. This concept is clinically relevant because cardiovascular risk may…

…and acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Its principal therapeutic objective is reduction of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C), the primary lipid target in contemporary secondary…

…patient with symptoms of myocardial ischaemia. The immediate therapeutic objective is restoration of coronary blood flow to the infarct zone, thereby limiting infarct size and…

…and is not determined solely by the apparent frequency or duration of documented episodes. The central therapeutic objective is prevention of thromboembolic complications, particularly stroke…

…scenarios may remain challenging. Effective management of tachycardia requires a comprehensive understanding of differential diagnoses, therapeutic strategies, and evidence based interventions. Many tachyarrhythmias carry a…

…Haemarthrosis after trauma. A symptomatic effusion causing pain or restricted movement (therapeutic aspiration). Intra articular corticosteroid injection in verified inflammatory or osteoarthritis related joint disease…

…the opening pressure in suspected idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Therapeutic drainage in idiopathic intracranial hypertension and in assessment before shunt surgery. Contraindications Clinical signs of herniation —…

…can be given during the recording and unmask the atrial activity. The investigation is diagnostic, not therapeutic. An unstable patient should be cardioverted, not investigated…

…Suspected malignancy, tuberculous peritonitis or pancreatic ascites. Therapeutic paracentesis: Tense ascites with abdominal discomfort, early satiety or respiratory compromise. Diuretic refractory or diuretic intolerant ascites…

…complicated parapneumonic effusion. Suspected malignancy, tuberculous pleurisy or chylothorax. Therapeutic aspiration: dyspnoea caused by a pleural effusion, whatever the aetiology. Chest drainage: empyema, complicated parapneumonic…

…and nicardipine in hypertensive emergencies. Time to onset of action 2 4 minutes Duration of action 5 15 minutes Delivery IV (infusion). Dose Initial dose:…

…and nicardipine in hypertensive emergencies. Time to onset of action 2 4 minutes Duration of action 5 15 minutes Delivery IV (infusion). Dose Initial dose:…

…5% 5,0% 12,2% 5 5,6% 8,5% 14,3% 6 7 6,5% 15,8% 20,9% Interpretation of TIMI Risk Score…

…2031 7. The TIMI risk score for unstable angina/non ST elevation MI: A method for prognostication and therapeutic decision making E M Antman, M…

…functional capacity, and quality of life may be equally important therapeutic objectives. Evidence from randomized trials is often less applicable to very frail or multimorbid…

…functional ventricular abnormalities and progressive neurohormonal activation. The therapeutic rationale for disease modifying treatment is to reduce mortality, prevent recurrent hospitalization for worsening heart failure…

…or other major adverse cardiovascular events. Complete revascularization is therefore considered an important therapeutic objective, particularly in patients with left ventricular dysfunction and/or MVD…

…or vasomotor coronary disorders. The investigation should be undertaken when its diagnostic or therapeutic consequences are likely to outweigh procedural risks. This balance forms part…

…sinus rate. Its principal therapeutic distinction from beta blockers is that it lowers heart rate without directly reducing myocardial contractility or altering vascular tone. Accordingly…

…activity therefore contributes to higher LDL C concentrations. The genetic evidence provides the rationale for therapeutic inhibition. Gain of function PCSK9 mutations are associated with…

…a threshold of ≤15 mmHg remains the recommended criterion for precapillary PH, partly because this value has been used in therapeutic studies of pulmonary arterial…

…aged 18 to 70, who received bystander CPR and initially presented with a ventricular arrhythmia without return of spontaneous circulation within 15 minutes, were included…

…and nicardipine in hypertensive emergencies. Time to onset of action 2 4 minutes Duration of action 5 15 minutes Delivery IV (infusion). Dose Initial dose:…

…Evaluation of coronary artery disease. Assessment of therapeutic response. Exercise testing can be used to evaluate the effect of medications or interventions such as PCI…

…cardioversion. It does not apply in haemodynamic instability. Digitalis toxicity — a risk of refractory ventricular arrhythmias. Therapeutic digoxin levels, by contrast, are no obstacle. Untreated…

…QTc duration. Risk Stratification and the 1 2 3 LQTS Risk Model Accurate risk stratification is pivotal in guiding therapeutic decisions for LQTS patients. Traditional…

…QTc duration. Risk Stratification and the 1 2 3 LQTS Risk Model Accurate risk stratification is pivotal in guiding therapeutic decisions for LQTS patients. Traditional…

…levels. Phenytoin: Salicylates reduce phenytoin binding to plasma albumin, but the therapeutic effect remains unchanged. Sulfonylureas: Salicylates may potentiate the hypoglycemic effect of sulfonylureas, possibly…

…their accuracies are moderate. Clinical judgment should always complement risk scores, considering individual patient characteristics and preferences when making therapeutic decisions. References 1. Fang MC…

…cough hypersensitivity syndrome are lacking; the diagnosis is suspected when alternative etiologies are excluded by diagnostic testing or failed therapeutic trials. If alternative causes of…

…requiring rapid loading and effect, IV amiodarone is administered as an initial dose of 15 mg/min for 10 minutes. This is followed by a…

…of falls Symptoms or history suggesting orthostatic hypotension Multimorbidity Polypharmacy and overall therapeutic burden Life expectancy Patient priorities and preferences Patients who are fit and…

…myocardial infarction occur in fewer than 1%, while mortality is generally below 0.1% in contemporary series. Reported risks vary according to the population and…

…aggregation. Its antiplatelet effect begins within approximately 30–60 minutes and persists for up to 7 days after discontinuation because platelet inhibition is irreversible. Aspirin…

…and dysfunction, which is associated with poor outcomes. Preserving right ventricular function is therefore an important therapeutic objective. Exercise intolerance Exercise limitation is multifactorial. In…

…contexts [4]. Reduction of Sympathetic Drive Modulating autonomic tone is a pivotal therapeutic target [4]: Beta Blockers : Administered to reduce adrenergic stimulation [4]. Sedation and…

…cardiovascular disease, including PAD Conversely, patients with CVD should be screened systematically for diabetes because undiagnosed T2DM is common and has major therapeutic and prognosti

…ECG findings. Thush, it serves as a valuable diagnostic tool and educational model, promoting earlier identification and treatment of high risk ACS patients. Future randomized…

…the analysis of electrolyte levels. Electrocardiography (ECG) serves as a valuable tool for detecting and assessing the severity of electrolyte disturbances, particularly before laboratory results…

…compressions. For traumatic tamponades, thoracotomy remains the primary therapeutic intervention. Ideally, it should be performed within 15 minutes of the onset of collapse. Pericardiocentesis , performed…

…effects of digoxin The incidence of adverse drug reactions is high, owing to the narrow therapeutic index of the drug. Digoxin is significantly pro arrhythmic…

…for a duration of 3 to 4 days post infusion, thereby providing extended therapeutic benefits. 2 Infusion of levosimendan can be repeated at 2 6…

…a rate exceeding 100 beats per minute (bpm), which terminates spontaneously within 30 seconds [1] . While often asymptomatic, NSVT serves as a critical marker of…