Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and clinical classification Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy comprise chronic or pre existing hypertension, gestational hypertension, and preeclampsia. Collectively, they affect approximately…

…Aspiration Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Bronchospasm (asthma) Other : Coma Central hypoventilation syndromes Neuromuscular diseases Anemia The natural course of asphyxia Should ventilation be entirely…

…Neurological symptoms, confusion, convulsion, tachycardia, hypotension, coma. As above but with lower temperatures. Electrolyte replacement. Large infusions of fluids are typically needed. Table 1. Grading…

…quick reference is intended primarily for adults and summarises the order in which measures are taken and the principles that are common to all protocols…

…any decision to limit treatment when time allows. There is complete upper airway obstruction where laryngoscopy will not succeed; plan for a surgical airway or…

…can cause: difficulty concentrating irritability or abnormal behaviour slurred speech visual disturbance confusion focal neurological signs drowsiness or unconsciousness seizures coma The symptom threshold varies…

…5. With severe symptoms: give hypertonic saline immediately. Do not wait for a complete work up of the cause or for imaging. 6. Document the…

…Remove contaminated clothing and wash the skin after external exposure A low Glasgow Coma Scale is not on its own an absolute indication for intubation…

…unknown duration : These cases are managed as chronic hyponatremia. Degree of hyponatremia P/S Na + Common effects Mild 130 125 mmol/l Cognitive disorders, vertigo…

…patients who experienced a brief cardiac arrest. Post resuscitation care is an integral component of the chain of survival. It includes diagnosis of post cardiac…

…Haematology Test Reference Comment : : : Reticulocytes 20–100 ×10⁹/L Distinguishes a production defect from haemolysis or bleeding Ferritin 15–300 µg/L (women 10–150…

…elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), non ST elevation ACS (NSTE ACS), or ACS complicated by cardiogenic shock. In NSTE ACS, a strategy involving coronary angiography and…

…appropriate, immediate percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Complications are uncommon, but their clinical spectrum ranges from transient arrhythmias and minor access site bleeding to myocardial infarction…

…action potential that will spread through the myocardium. Components of an artificial pacemaker Pacemakers consist of an implantable pulse generator (IPG) , which contains the electronics…

…were interested in obtaining certificates. The results were clear: 89% of users were interested in obtaining a certificate upon course completion. Today we are pleased…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Therapeutic Rationale Hypertension is a major risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and contributes to microvascular and macrovascular complications. It…

Echocardiography Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Post infarction mechanical complications are structural disruptions of acutely infarcted myocardium occurring most often during the first…

…swelling, interstitial edema, and inflammatory extravascular compression. This impaired tissue perfusion can extend injury beyond the initial ischemic zone and contributes to ventricular failure. Mechanisms…

…Study Figure 7 carefully, as it illustrates how the P wave and QRS complex are generated by the electrical vectors. Note that the first vector…

…However, a growing body of science suggests that essential hypertension is a multifactorial disease caused by a complex interplay between genes and environment. Industrialization and…

…The blood tissue interface may also be used to measure ventricular dimension in instances when the interface between compacted and noncompacted myocardium cannot be discerned…

ECG Video lecture: The QRS complex: Q wave, R wave & S wave

…or gentamicin 4.5 mg/kg IV as a single dose Urosepsis with complicating factors cefotaxime 1 g × 3 IV 10–14 days including oral…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Premature atrial contraction (premature atrial beat / complex) A premature atrial contraction is produced by an impulse discharged from an ectopic focus…

…the ventricles it will spread partly or entirely outside of the conduction system and thus produce a wide QRS complex (QRS duration ≥0.12 s)…

…sophisticated art, even in the current era of artificial intelligence (AI). ECG interpretation requires a comprehensive understanding of cardiovascular pathophysiology and electrocardiology. Unfortunately, numerous books…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Diagnosis and management of narrow and wide complex tachycardia All clinically significant supraventricular and ventricular tachyarrhythmias have been reviewed in previous…

…to give the reader firm knowledge of normal findings , normal variants (i.e less common variants of what is considered normal) and pathological variants . Thus…

Procedurer Three of the commonest minor procedures in general practice concern the nails, and all three rest on the same foundation: an effective digital block…

Procedurer The commonest error in paracentesis is not performing it. Every patient admitted with ascites should undergo a diagnostic paracentesis , because spontaneous bacterial peritonitis often…

Procedurer Almost all the complications of pleural aspiration arise from two errors: the needle is placed in the wrong site, and too much is drained…

…commonly stated that approximately 80% of all cardiac arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being the most common…

Farmakologi & dosering Kardiologi Lathundar Three questions come up again and again on call: which dose, how long to interrupt treatment before a procedure, and how…

Procedurer Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is the commonest cause of vertigo in primary care and one of the few diagnoses that can be cured on…

Info The ECG shows AV block III (complete heart block). P waves are not related to QRS. PP interval is constant, but independent of RR…

Echocardiography Ultrasound artifacts The following artifacts are common in ultrasound imaging: The ultrasound image displays non existing structures. The ultrasound image does not display existing…

…higher for troponin I (cTnI). Antibody interference is a rare phenomenon that occurs when troponin forms complexes with immunoglobulins, leading to higher levels of troponin…

CPR This chapter will introduce the most common and essential terms used in resuscitation science, providing a foundation for understanding subsequent chapters. SCA (Sudden Cardiac…

…degree AV block. ECG examples are given in Figure 1 . Figure 1. Third degree AV block (complete heart block, AV dissociation). Figure 2. Example of…

Cardiology Introduction Ventricular tachycardia (VT) represents a complex and potentially lethal spectrum of cardiac arrhythmias that remains a formidable challenge in contemporary cardiovascular medicine. As…

…therapy is foundational unless contraindicated. Combination Therapy: Ezetimibe is the next step if LDL C targets are not met with statins alone. PCSK9 Inhibitors: Added…

…Prasita Indications Prasugrel, administered in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of atherothrombotic events in adult patients with acute coronary syndromes…

…personalized treatment decisions. The SYNTAX Score was created to address the need for a standardized method to evaluate the anatomical complexity of CAD, particularly in…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Pathophysiology Dietary patterns are the overall combinations of foods habitually consumed rather than isolated nutrients considered independently. For cardiometabolic health…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and cardiovascular rationale Smoking cessation is the complete discontinuation of tobacco smoking, with avoidance of second hand smoke and, where possible…

Cardiology Definition and terminology Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by symptoms and signs resulting from structural or functional impairment of ventricular…

Cardiology Interpreting myocardial perfusion SPECT images involves a systematic comparison of rest and stress images to assess myocardial ischemia and infarction. The key steps in…

Echocardiography Mitral regurgitation Causes of mitral regurgitation The most common cause of mitral regurgitation in high income countries is age related degeneration of the valvular…

…progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental pathophysiological substrate for acute coronary syndromes (ACS), including…

CPR ECG 1 . There is atrial fibrillation. Three QRS T complexes are seen, with the latter two having similar QRS morphology. These beats may originate…

Echocardiography The Continuity Equation: What Goes In Must Come Out As previously discussed, stroke volume is usually calculated by measuring area and VTI (velocity time…

Echocardiography Echocardiography in 2D Two dimensional (2D) ultrasound is the most commonly used modality in echocardiography. The two dimensions presented are width (x axis) and…

…NIV are two different treatments with different physiology, and the commonest source of error is confusing them. CPAP delivers a constant pressure that recruits alveoli…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Pharmacology & dosing Pharmacokinetic Considerations Relevant to Dosing Amiodarone exhibits highly variable and complex pharmacokinetics that profoundly influence its dosing strategies. The drug…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) is the combined use of aspirin and an oral P2Y12 receptor inhibitor…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Lipid lowering therapy is a central component of cardiovascular prevention, particularly in patients with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD…

…Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an important cause of…

…However, randomized evidence has not shown a reduction in mortality or myocardial infarction with routine CTO PCI compared with medical therapy. Clinical presentation and symptoms…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Vasovagal syncope represents the most common form of neurally mediated syncope (NMS), a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It…

…Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Thromboembolism Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common sustained cardiac arrhythmia and a profound driver of global cardiovascular morbidity and mortality…