…or pregnancy. Check the validity before ordering blood ; an expired type and screen discovered when the patient is already bleeding costs precious time. Exact validity…

…expected range of compensation. Sample type and baseline values An arterial blood gas is the reference method when the question concerns oxygenation, precise ventilation or…

…commonly, retrograde. Distal re entry tears may allow blood to return to the true lumen, whereas disruption of the adventitia can result in rupture. An…

…result in insufficient blood flow to meet the increased myocardial oxygen demand, precipitating Type 2 MI. It is also crucial to distinguish Type 2 MI…

…Haemodynamic measurements become interpretable only when related to one another. A low blood pressure may be due to low flow, low vascular tone or both…

Cardiology Emergency medicine Definition and Pathophysiology A hypertensive emergency is severe blood pressure elevation accompanied by acute hypertension mediated target organ damage (HMOD). The European…

…decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood pressure, lipids…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…pharmacological basis Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a class of oral agents initially developed for glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)…

…coronary blood flow may produce myocardial ischaemia, acute coronary syndrome (ACS), myocardial infarction (MI), or, rarely, sudden cardiac death. SCAD differs pathogenetically from atherosclerotic type…

…of ischaemic symptoms. The immediate pathophysiological objective is restoration of blood flow to the infarct related myocardial territory and limitation of infarct size. The extent…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

Echocardiography Cardiomyopathy caused by tachycardia A prolonged tachycardia can cause cardiomyopathy with left ventricular dilation. This type of cardiomyopathy, referred to as tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy …

…the assessment of myocardial reperfusion The ECG is an invaluable tool to assess whether an occlusion has been resolved and blood flow has been restored…

…principles and differences of dilatation and hypertrophy, as well as typical ECG changes seen in atrial and ventricular enlargement. Dilatation is caused by volume (diastolic…

…in COPD Arterial blood gas Type 1 respiratory failure: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with a normal or low PaCO₂ — a problem of oxygenation. Type 2:…

…severe DKA Cognitive impairment is more common, particularly at very high osmolality Blood ketones are preferable to urine ketones. The principal ketone body in DKA…

…or as a substitute for mobilisation and bladder training. Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected urethral injury — blood at the meatus, a perineal or scrotal haematoma…

…syndrome in which increased intrapericardial pressure compresses the heart and impairs ventricular filling. It generally results from accumulation of pericardial fluid, blood, or, less commonly…

…red meat. The principal evidence supported patterns are Mediterranean type and DASH style diets. Their effects are multidimensional and cannot be adequately inferred from changes…

…neurons and other tissues. This distribution helps explain why PA produces cardiovascular injury beyond its effects on blood pressure and potassium balance. The principal sporadic…

…risk factors, type of symptoms etc. Chest pain is one of the most nuanced symptoms in clinical practice and it is fundamental to be able…

…penetrating arteries) : This is the most common type of ischaemic stroke, resulting from the occlusion of small penetrating arteries that provide blood to deep structures…

…the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation. Because color Doppler is a type of pulsed wave Doppler, it is limited by the Nyquist limit…

…Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation) , a type of ECLS, operates by drawing venous blood from the patient to an oxygenator (gas exchanger), where it undergoes oxygenation and…

…stenosis. In hypertension, the increased systemic resistance makes it more difficult for the ventricle to eject blood into the aorta during systole. In aortic stenosis…

…involvement. Work up of unexplained iron, B12 or folate deficiency when blood tests are insufficient. Contraindications Severe coagulopathy or ongoing anticoagulation — correct this first . Thrombocytopenia…

…Contraindications Cautery: Type Contraindication : : Absolute The source of bleeding cannot be identified Relative A pacemaker or ICD when monopolar electrocautery is used Relative A cochlear…

…Otherwise: Type Contraindication : : Absolute No safe pocket of fluid to puncture (no ultrasound verified fluid) Relative Uncorrected coagulopathy or thrombocytopenia Relative Ongoing anticoagulant treatment — plan…

…myocardial ischaemia or syncope — that has not responded to atropine: Complete heart block (third degree AV block) and second degree AV block Mobitz type 2…

…the coronary arteries or coronary microcirculation. These abnormalities can produce a transient and reversible mismatch between myocardial oxygen demand and blood supply, generally during exertion…

…and undertreatment. Traditional cardiovascular risk factors Several conventional risk factors have sex dependent effects: Blood pressure rises more steeply in women from young adulthood, resulting…

…to support systemic blood pressure through its infusion rate parameters. Clinical Presentation and Symptoms Acute heart failure necessitating inotropic or vasopressor support typically manifests in…

…treatment. It is associated with lower cardiovascular and all cause mortality and with reduced incidence or burden of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, coronary disease, stroke…

…mechanism. Sequential activation implies that the atria are activated first and they fill the ventricles with adequate volumes of blood before ventricular contraction commences. To…

…and neurohormonal factors. These factors, which influence cardiac function primarily by affecting ventricular function, include blood pressure, venous return, pulmonary gas exchange efficiency, the concentration…

…disability, exposure (ABCDE) approach is applicable in bradycardia (Figure 1). Cardiac output and blood pressure, rather than ECG, are the strongest predictors of adverse outcomes…

…Rupture: Accounting for 60 70% of ACS presentations, plaque rupture typically occurs in thin cap fibroatheromas (TCFAs). These vulnerable plaques possess a massive necrotic lipid…

…is prolonged after a premature beat). This yields more time to fill the ventricles with blood (increased ventricular filling). Persons with premature beats might perceive…

…therapy. Biomarkers and Laboratory Findings Monitoring renal function and potassium is a critical component of ACE inhibitor therapy. Blood pressure (including postural changes), renal function…

…A Streptococcus ). Rheumatic heart disease can occur at any age and multiple valve lesions are common (typically the aortic and mitral valve). Rheumatic heart disease…

…rhythm is very typical during reperfusion and in that scenario it is a good prognostic marker because it signals that coronary blood flow has been…

…beta blockade). Tolerance after a few days. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) Shock (all types). Hypotension (all types). 0.01–3.0 μg/kg/min. Safe peripherally…

…types I and III, elastin, and proteoglycans [6] . This matrix forms a fibrous cap that sequesters the highly thrombogenic lipid core from the flowing blood…

…the coronary arteries to maintain a relatively constant myocardial blood flow despite changes in coronary perfusion pressure, typically within a range of 50 120 mmHg…

Cardiology Definition and pathophysiology Blood pressure is a continuous cardiovascular exposure rather than a binary distinction between normotension and hypertension. Its long term relationship with…

…while the typical local signs of inflammation may be faint or absent. Take cultures immediately, but never let sampling, imaging, the blood count or contact…

…intracavitary clot attached to the LV endocardium, typically overlying an akinetic or dyskinetic myocardial segment after myocardial infarction (MI). It is particularly associated with extensive…

…matrix to circulating blood. Tissue factor within the plaque and tissue factor bearing microparticles contribute to activation of coagulation. Plaque rupture is typically associated with…

CPR Hyperthermia and malignant hyperthermia Hyperthermia is characterized by a body temperature exceeding the typical range of 36.5 37.6°C (97.7 99.7°F)…

…ventricle contracts and ejects blood into the aorta roughly 100,000 times daily, each time overcoming the aortic resistance, which is typically 110 mmHg or…

…Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Heart failure is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot provide blood flow commensurate with the body’s requirements…

…1960s. In 1948 the NHLBI initiated the Framingham Heart Study, which demonstrated that high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were…

…a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It typically occurs after attaining an upright posture or following painful stimuli and emotional stress. By the age of 60…

…etiologies when promptly and appropriately addressed. Both venous and arterial blood gases can be utilized for the analysis of electrolyte levels. Electrocardiography (ECG) serves as…

…low and middle income countries. Rheumatic heart disease typically results in thickening of the leaflets and may coexist with mitral stenosis. Idiopathic degeneration (Barlow's…

…low in healthy subjects; the 99 th percentile is less than a few nanograms per liter of blood (typically <5 ng/L). This is explained…

…as SIRVA. Both are avoided with the right landmark and the right needle length. Indications Route Typical drugs Absorption : : : Intramuscular (IM) Vaccines, depot antipsychotics, hydroxocobalamin…

…across the aortic valve. Trace the Doppler profile to calculate the AV VTI, representing the distance blood travels during systole. 3. Right Ventricular Outflow Tract…