…marker of function and may rise only after a substantial fall in glomerular filtration. The value is affected by muscle mass, nutrition, drugs and fluid…

…Capillary refill is delayed, and venous filling may be reduced. Other possible findings include muscle stiffening and loss of deep tendon reflexes. Pulses are absent…

…accounting for approximately 80% of cases. Other causes include acute mechanical complications—particularly ventricular septal defect (VSD) and papillary muscle rupture with acute severe mitral…

…endothelial dysfunction, smooth muscle cell dysfunction, and dysregulation of sympathetic innervation), coronary embolism, and spontaneous coronary artery dissection with or without intramural haematoma. Spontaneous coronary…

…muscle cells, leading to a white, platelet rich thrombus. Myocardial vulnerability, largely driven by coronary microvascular dysfunction, also contributes to the extension and severity of…

…Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma. Atherosclerotic PAD is a manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather…

…C based eGFR With an atypical muscle mass, or to confirm a creatinine based value The mean of creatinine and cystatin C The most reliable…

…smooth muscle, endothelial cells, macrophages, neurons and other tissues. This distribution helps explain why PA produces cardiovascular injury beyond its effects on blood pressure and…

…complex fibroatheroma. Smooth muscle cells (SMCs) migrate from the tunica media into the intima, driven by platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) and other cytokines. Within…

…coronary occlusion and progress over time. Experimentally, necrosis advances from the subendocardium towards the subepicardium over several hours. The extent and tempo of injury are…

…particularly in iatrogenic aortic injury. Iatrogenic lesions commonly follow cardiac surgery, coronary angiography or other invasive procedures, and affected patients may be relatively painless compared…

…outcomes. The vast majority of infections with COVID 19 result in mild disease, with symptoms similar to seasonal flu (influenza) and other viral respiratory infections…

…peripheral artery to the aortic root and coronary ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides…

…many cases, the renal injury probably represents acute tubular necrosis arising from the combined effects of contrast exposure and other ischaemic or nephrotoxic stresses. The…

…the victim's outcome: Neurological injury Myocardial dysfunction Systemic response to reperfusion and ischemia Effects of the underlying cause of cardiac arrest Neurological injuries may…

…history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre. Indications Brief attacks of vertigo, seconds…

…control centre for advice on the treatment threshold and on whether haemodialysis should be considered. Rhabdomyolysis with marked elevation of CK and threatened kidney injury…

…Respiratory rate and oxygenation Evidence of systemic congestion or acute RV failure Syncope or altered clinical status Comorbid cardiopulmonary disease, active cancer, and other conditions…

…true bradyarrhythmic or asystolic arrest from other tachyarrhythmic events. On the surface electrocardiogram, sinus bradycardia may appear at rates of 40 to 48 beats per…

…or other vascular beds. Malignant hypertension represents an extreme form in which acute microvascular injury occurs, classically involving fibrinoid necrosis of small arteries in the…

…in other reports. It is more frequent in women and in patients presenting with NSTEMI than in those presenting with STEMI. Approximately one third of…

…liver injury is the commonest cause Isolated bilirubin Unconjugated, the others normal Gilbert's syndrome, haemolysis The R value = (ALT / upper limit of normal…

…the efficacy of diuretics and antihypertensives. Risk of acute kidney injury increases when combined with ACE inhibitors. Corticosteroids and other NSAIDs: Increased risk of gastrointestinal…

…Types 2–5 MI have other mechanisms of myocardial ischaemia and necrosis. Unstable angina (UA) represents myocardial ischaemia without demonstrable acute cardiomyocyte injury or necrosis…

…of dissection and impaired distal flow. These alternative causes must be distinguished from isolated no reflow because their treatment may require immediate stenting or other…

…evidence of acute cardiomyocyte injury or necrosis. It is distinguished from acute myocardial infarction (AMI), in which myocardial ischaemia is accompanied by cardiomyocyte necrosis and…

…however, display both ECG changes and symptoms. Troponins and other biomarkers of myocardial necrosis (infarction) Myocardium can endure 20 to 30 minutes of complete ischemia…

…creatinine, acid–base status and signs of myocardial ischaemia must be monitored during treatment [4,6]. Important exceptions Condition Overall strategy Common first choices : : : Acute…

…Subclinical cerebral injury may contribute to vascular dementia, and thromboembolism may affect organs other than the brain. Patients with AF in the setting of ACS…

…Myocardial injury leads to release of cardiac troponin, but troponin elevation is not specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated…

…and imaging technique. Coronary fistulae represent abnormal communications between a coronary artery and a cardiac chamber or vessel. Other congenital anomalies include anomalous origin of…

…segment depression is a common and early electrocardiographic sign of acute pericarditis, reflecting pericardial involvement overlying the atria [4, 5]. Other Differential Diagnoses ST segment…

…transmural ischemia. On the other hand, leads V1–V3 (occasionally V4) may detect the injury currents and present them as ST segment depressions. These depressions…

…inflammation and other systemic influences. The severity of myocardial injury is determined not only by the epicardial obstruction but also by the vulnerability of the…

…concentration washes nitrogen out of the pleural air and speeds resorption. Other conditions in which high flow oxygen is given irrespective of the saturation according…

…drinking in either sex. Other definitions of unhealthy drinking include at least two drinks daily in women or three in men, or at least four…

…resolution does not consistently permit identification of foamy macrophages. The occurrence of neoatherosclerosis helps explain why ISR and other stent related events may arise well…

…injury currents are not strong enough to be detected on leads with opposite angle of observation. Other vectors may interfere with the injury currents, and…

…closer monitoring — the patient cannot feel pressure injury Peripheral neuropathy of other cause As above Severe pain Titrate the pressure up gradually Rheumatoid arthritis with…

…Concussion, temporal bone injury, dissection, aminoglycoside toxicity, antiepileptic drugs, alcohol or sedatives Trauma and medication directed workup This corresponds to the principles of TiTrATE, in…

…high shear conditions. Disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque or injury associated with PCI exposes thrombogenic material, promoting platelet activation, aggregation, and fibrin formation. Within a…

…transmural ischemia. On the other hand, leads V1–V3 (occasionally V4) may detect the injury currents and present them as ST segment depressions. These depressions…

…tendon sheaths Deep compartments and tendon sheaths, loss of function Orthopaedic or hand surgeon, urgently Perianal and perirectal Often larger than it appears; risk of…

…if there is suspicion of cervical spine injury, in which scenario head tilt chin lift should only be used if other methods fail to open…

…intravenous) Loading dose by weight, maintenance dose by renal function and drug concentration Gentamicin and other aminoglycosides A single dose initially. If treatment is continued…

…or unsecured airway in a patient with a reduced level of consciousness Gastric lavage Corrosive injury or suspected oesophageal perforation Gastric lavage Petroleum products Gastric…

…typical of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes. They may occur in both NSTEMI and…

…set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood gas determines the need for…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…X linked or other non autosomal dominant mechanisms. Complex or multifactorial genetic architecture. The inheritance pattern affects the appropriate scope and duration of family surveillance…

…density lipoprotein and chylomicron remnants. It is calculated as: Non HDL C = total cholesterol − HDL C Apolipoprotein B (apoB) reflects the concentration of circulating…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes…

…NSTEMI and unstable angina. Management begins in parallel with the diagnostic work up. Obtain an interpretable 12 lead ECG within 10 minutes of first medical…

…and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet activation and…

…low density lipoprotein (VLDL) Chylomicrons and other triglyceride rich particles Thus, non HDL C provides a broader estimate of atherogenic cholesterol than LDL C alone…

…vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation. Because aspirin affects only one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…FH). Heterozygous FH results in high LDL cholesterol levels (but nothing else) and increases the risk of acute myocardial infarction by more than 50 times…

…from selected populations, frequently with low or intermediate ischemic risk and under representation of patients with STEMI or other very high risk features. Noninferiority studies…

…ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures. Both…