…physical activity and any other precipitating factor. Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient…

…a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body's exchangeable sodium and potassium and the total body water. In…

…include electrolyte disorders, metabolic disorders, hypoxemia, antiarrhythmic drugs, or electromagnetic disturbance caused by other machines/devices. Below follows ECG tracings demonstrating each type of failure…

…4b and 4c fulfil the criteria for type 1 MI because they represent coronary atherothrombotic events in the setting of a stent thrombosis or restenosis…

…pO₂, A–a gradient or PaO₂/FiO₂ Arterial blood gas COHb or MetHb Arterial or venous sample with co oximetry Follow up of pH in…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…by numerous local and systemic disorders. Accumulation of fluid in the pericardial space may lead to increased intrapericardial pressure, which in turn affects ventricular relaxation…

…Prophylaxis against recurrence of cerebrovascular disease: 75–80 mg tablet once daily. Warnings and precautions Use Aspirin with caution in the following cases: Concurrent anticoagulant…

…component of the overall burden of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. SCORE2 is intended principally for adults aged 40–69 years, whereas SCORE2 OP is used in…

…PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased, relatively autonomous from angiotensin II and plasma potassium…

…of cardiovascular disease. The biological differences between females and males arise partly from the chromosomal distinction between XX and XY individuals and are reflected in…

…is not regarded as a discrete disease; rather, it is an indicator of increased cardiovascular risk and a setting in which secondary hypertension is relatively…

…without acute elevations in cardiac troponin concentrations. Based on the presenting electrocardiogram (ECG) and the presence of troponin elevation, ACS are classified into unstable angina…

…although some series report 10–20%. Other life threatening cardiopulmonary conditions account for approximately 5% of presentations in some populations. Despite this relatively low prevalence…

…coronary artery disease) as the underlying cause. Other common causes are cardiomyopathy (hypertrophic or dilated), arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Brugada syndrome, early repolarization. Electrolyte disorders…

…Assessing the haemodynamic significance of lesions whose angiographic severity is uncertain. Supporting decisions regarding revascularization and, in selected patients, identifying microvascular or vasomotor coronary disorders…

…generally defined as the absence of a stenosis of 50% or more in any potential infarct related artery. MINOCA is not a definitive disease diagnosis…

…secondary. Primary and secondary ST T changes Primary ST T changes are caused by abnormal repolarization . This is seen in ischemia, electrolyte disorders (calcium, potassium)…

…disease. Less frequently, it may also present in individuals without identifiable cardiac disease. Contributing factors include pulmonary disorders, particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of…

…effect of drugs, hypoxia, myocarditis and electrolyte disorders. Because the rate (60–100 beats per minute) is on a par with the rate in sinus…

…be classified as idiopathic if no cause can be identified. Idiopathic ventricular tachycardia has a more favorable prognosis, as compared with other forms of ventricular…

…S Ca 2+ 2.6 mmol/L In approximately 90% of cases, hypercalcemia is attributed to primary hyperparathyroidism or neoplastic etiologies. Other causes include immobilization…

…of Brugada syndrome are fairly specific to the disorder, provided that the clinical characteristics are in line with the disorder. There are however other disorders…

…and herpes zoster pain are other considerations when assessing chest pain [2]. Autoimmune/Malignancy: A history suggesting an autoimmune disorder or known malignancy may suggest…

…manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have concomitant coronary, cerebrovascular or other peripheral arterial disease…

…of torsade de pointes in PubMed. Abexinostat has been used in trials studying the treatment of Sarcoma, Lymphoma, Leukemia, Lymphocytic, and Hodgkin Disease, among others…

…benefits of cessation The principal benefits relevant to clinical cardiology include: Clinical setting or outcome Reported benefit of cessation Cardiovascular disease overall Substantial reduction in…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…occur in association with other procedural complications, including distal embolization, coronary dissection, perforation, and abrupt closure. The clinical consequences depend heavily on the amount of…

…disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a consequent excess risk of premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease…

…use disorder and planned follow up , not merely detoxification. Benzodiazepines reduce the severity of withdrawal and the risk of seizures and delirium [1,2]. In…

…Addison's disease and digoxin intoxication may also cause hyperkalemia. ECG in mild hyperkalemia (potassium 6,0 mmol/L) The earliest sign of hyperkalemia is…

…50 years for researchers to finally conclude that high cholesterol levels caused coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis in general. This required thousands of observational studies…

…more typical of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes. They may occur in both NSTEMI…

…on the basis of sputum purulence, the other cardinal symptoms and the severity of the illness. 7. Start NIV without undue delay in persistent hypercapnic…

…a summary of the indications, contraindications, dosage, administration, warnings, precautions, and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination…

…is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…heart failure. Routine opening of a persistently occluded infarct related artery in a stable and asymptomatic patient is by contrast not recommended [1,5]. STEMI…

…spot, in three minutes, without drugs . The diagnosis rests on the history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…Their clinical importance arises from the causal role of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) and other apoB containing lipoproteins in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…that inhibit other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and secondary prevention is fundamental: Primary prevention refers to individuals without established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD…

…or other atherosclerotic disease; diabetes and other cardiovascular risk factors; smoking, hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, and sedentary behaviour; family history, particularly in the broader assessment of peripheral…

…In the setting of acute coronary syndrome (ACS), DAPT is used to reduce recurrent myocardial infarction, stent thrombosis and other ischemic events after coronary angiography…

…of vascular autoregulation during a rapid or severe rise in BP. This may produce acute injury in the brain, retina, heart, aorta, kidneys, or other…

…over PCI in multivessel disease. A British Cardiovascular Intervention Society myocardial jeopardy score is an alternative method for estimating the extent and severity of CAD…

…beats per minute. Note that with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2…

…cancel each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Use of ECG in acute coronary syndromes & chest pain patients An ECG must be performed on all patients seeking medical…

…transducer during systole (systole starts at the peak of the R wave on the electrocardiogram). This Doppler signal represents a pronounced mitral regurgitation. In summary…

…tomographic images of the left ventricle. In PET (Positron Emission Tomography), radiotracers emit positrons. When a positron collides with an electron, they annihilate each other…

…elevations are extremely common in all populations. They occur in young, old, healthy and diseased individuals. For example, roughly 90% of males aged <30 years…

…3. In third degree AV block, no atrial impulses are conducted to the ventricles. The atria and the ventricles are electrically dissociated from each other…

…from a BMI of 23 and obesity from 27.5, because cardiometabolic risk appears at a lower BMI. BMI is misleading in athletes with a…

…the bleeding risk of the procedure and by renal function. In markedly reduced renal function (dabigatran at eGFR <30 mL/min, the other DOACs at…

…of the specimen — an aspirate that clots before the smears are made is unusable, no matter how well the puncture went. Indications Unexplained cytopenia in…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is needed for management. Cryoglobulinaemia, cold agglutinin disease…

…high grade AV block without pacemaker protection. Asthma and other marked obstructive airways disease — relative; the risk of bronchospasm is real. Hypotension and haemodynamic instability…