…serves as a barrier to infections. The pericardium reduces friction between the ventricles and surrounding structures of the mediastinum. Friction is reduced because the fluid…

…What usually ruins the examination is not the technique but the handling of the specimen — an aspirate that clots before the smears are made is…

…outcomes. The vast majority of infections with COVID 19 result in mild disease, with symptoms similar to seasonal flu (influenza) and other viral respiratory infections…

…artery disease. Stable angina pectoris. Secondary prophylaxis to prevent recurrence of cerebrovascular diseases, such as: Transient ischemic attacks (TIA). Stroke Contraindications Cross reactivity: Do not…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…sickness Aspiration Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Bronchospasm (asthma) Other : Coma Central hypoventilation syndromes Neuromuscular diseases Anemia The natural course of asphyxia Should ventilation be…

…follows: [...] Of every 10 such victims, the heart in 6 or 7 showed no recent disease in coronary arteries or in heart muscle. In other…

…management, treatment response and outcomes of cardiovascular disease. The biological differences between females and males arise partly from the chromosomal distinction between XX and XY…

…pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive treatments can blunt the febrile response…

…all other causes have been ruled out. Inappropriate sinus tachycardia is presumably more common than previously thought and the condition may hamper the quality of…

…Advantages of measuring MAP over systolic blood pressure While systolic blood pressure (SBP) indicates the maximum pressure during heart contraction, it does not provide a…

…Asymptomatic disease may be discovered during targeted duplex ultrasound (DUS), pre operative assessment, or evaluation of other atherosclerotic disease. Routine population screening is not recommended…

…artery disease Traditionally, coronary artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations…

…during effective decongestion and overall clinical improvement does not necessarily indicate an adverse outcome. Classification of CKD CKD severity is classified by eGFR and albuminuria…

…artery disease Traditionally, coronary artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations…

…over 40 years of age, atherosclerosis is the predominant cause. Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma…

…other cardinal symptoms and the severity of the illness. 7. Start NIV without undue delay in persistent hypercapnic respiratory acidosis, if invasive ventilation is not…

…recorded causes of cardiac arrest with a separate category for cardiac etiologies. Cause Definition Medical cause Includes cardiac arrest caused by heart disease, other medical…

…and CABG. Physical examination findings are not specific to left main disease. The examination should nevertheless assess the consequences of extensive myocardial ischaemia, including heart…

…significant coronary artery disease, potentially resulting in false negative findings. Radiotracers in myocardial perfusion imaging Radiotracers are designed to identify ischemic areas of the myocardium…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…is often indicative of a noncardiac source [4]. 3. Pneumonia with Pleurisy Pain Characteristics: Pleuritic pain is a common presentation [2]. 4. Other Systemic/Local…

…central clinical danger is progressive aortic wall disruption, rupture and compromise of branch vessels. Type A disease may cause cardiac tamponade, severe acute aortic regurgitation…

…some patients present with severe LMCA stenosis exacerbated by other conditions, and these must also be recognized. Prompt identification of LMCA involvement is therefore critical…

…drinking in either sex. Other definitions of unhealthy drinking include at least two drinks daily in women or three in men, or at least four…

…choice of device therapy and also suggest whether other interventions (e.g. heart failure management, evaluation for coronary artery disease, etc .) are warranted. Management of…

…Other anti inflammatory strategies have produced less favourable results. Canakinumab, a monoclonal antibody directed against interleukin 1β, provided proof of concept but was not…

…arteries. It frequently coexists with left main coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous…

…atherothrombosis. It is usually precipitated by disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque through rupture or erosion. The relative contributions of plaque disease and thrombus vary considerably…

…Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is needed for management. Cryoglobulinaemia, cold agglutinin disease…

…the broader atherosclerotic disease. Pathophysiology Mechanisms of acute coronary syndrome The major mechanisms producing acute coronary syndromes are: Plaque rupture with exposure of thrombogenic material…

…Figure 1. Flowchart showing the natural course of coronary artery disease and classification of acute coronary syndromes into STEMI, NSTEMI and unstable angina using ECG…

…QRS duration ≥0,12 seconds) indicates the ventricles are not depolarized normally. The vast majority of WCTs originate from impulses generated in the ventricles (ventricular…

…continuity equation All valvular stenoses must be graded in order to optimize management according to disease severity. The most important parameter, for grading of stenoses…

…myocardial perfusion imaging Diagnosis of coronary artery disease (CAD) : Myocardial perfusion imaging can confirm or rule out CAD in patients with symptoms suggestive of CAD…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…quality of the examination, and allows for standardized comparisons of serial examinations. If pathology is discovered during the standard examination, other examinations (which are not…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…often necessary to normalize blood pressure. Management of hypertension requires careful consideration of other cardiovascular risk factors and coexisting conditions. Therapy must be tailored to…

…a substantial proportion of the excess ischaemic heart disease risk associated with heavy smoking. Consequently, reducing the number of cigarettes smoked does not produce a…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…proceed with urgent investigation , and a normal CT of the brain does not exclude an infarction in the posterior fossa. Preparation and equipment No special…

…cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were strongly associated with coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction. However, association is not the same as causation . A…

…JAMA): [...] Of every 10 such victims, the heart in 6 or 7 showed no recent disease in coronary arteries or in heart muscle. In other…

…cheapest and most accessible method of objectively demonstrating peripheral arterial disease, and it is needed more often than it is used — not only in claudication…

…that the risk of high degree AV block and ventricular arrhythmias is greater in patients on digoxin or verapamil, although this is not an established…

…it often holds true for cardiac arrests caused by chronic or acute ischemic heart disease, it is often not true in other circumstances (e.g…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental pathophysiological substrate for acute coronary syndromes (ACS), including…

…treatment — modification of loading, eccentric exercise, an NSAID, an orthosis — has not given a sufficient effect. Contraindications Absolute: Cellulitis, a skin wound or other infection…

…applies where you work. They assume normal renal and hepatic function, a non pregnant adult of normal weight, and individual assessment. See the separate quick…

…chadsva] The CHA₂DS₂ VA score has superseded the CHA₂DS₂ VASc score. As of 2025, it is recommended to use the CHA₂DS₂ VA score for stroke…

…Their clinical importance arises from the causal role of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) and other apoB containing lipoproteins in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…by the fact that there is no (or very little) turnover of myocardial cells and therefore myocardial troponins should not be detected in the blood…

…can not distinguish different types of dilated cardiomyopathy. Other causes of ventricular dilation ( e.g ischemic cardiomyopathy) must be excluded before establishing a diagnosis of…

…pronounced symptoms and other therapies have failed. Patients with structural heart disease or reduced left ventricular function are not eligible. Effects of propafenone and flecainide…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…balancing estimating the risks of bleeding. Components of the HEMORR₂HAGES Score The acronym HEMORR₂HAGES represents the following parameters: H epatic or renal disease (1 point…

…ACE) inhibitors are foundational therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction …