…and colloids flow more slowly, and every additional length of tubing, every tap and every filter reduces the flow further — it is the whole system…

…it can usually be continued Red flags and pitfalls Stopping basal insulin in type 1 diabetes. The single most dangerous prescribing decision on a ward…

…degradation to inosine, phosphorylation to AMP, and reuptake into cells through a nucleoside transport system. Because of these highly efficient elimination pathways, adenosine has an…

…fatty acid synthesis and may affect epigenetic regulation through changes in DNA acetylation. Lipid lowering efficacy Bempedoic acid is available as a single daily dose…

…exist to stabilize the cardiac rhythm [4]: Antiarrhythmic Agents : Intravenous amiodarone and lidocaine can be administered. Additional pharmacological options include quinidine, ranolazine, and procainamide [4]…

…angina pectoris and acute myocardial infarction are categorized under acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Aortic dissection Pneumothorax Pulmonary embolism Mediastinitis (rare condition) In addition to these…

…In addition, color Doppler can be used to align the continuous Doppler. Figure 2. Color Doppler reveals the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Acute Myocardial Infarction: Definition & Criteria Acute myocardial infarction is the most severe complication of coronary artery disease. The most common…

…opportunity for reperfusion. In addition, some patients present with severe LMCA stenosis exacerbated by other conditions, and these must also be recognized. Prompt identification of…

…and can develop gradually over several days to weeks. More acute endocarditis is often caused by staphylococcus auerus . This usually affects drug users (intravenous addiction…

…the impulse may actually enter the conduction system (His Purkinje network), which results in rapid impulse transmission and thus shorter QRS duration (as compared with…

…be obtained by other imaging methods, namely exercise capacity (and VO2 max , see below). In addition to exercise capacity, stress testing also provides information on…

…myocardium and valves. ECG is recorded in all patients with suspected pericardial disease. In addition to echocardiography, ECG and clinical examination, blood tests and other…

…of skin and fat atrophy. Lederspan states in addition that the dosing interval should not be shorter than four weeks . Mix the corticosteroid and the…

…to exertional breathlessness and reduced exercise capacity. Multiorgan and comorbidity driven disease HFpEF is heterogeneous rather than a single pathophysiologic entity. Hypertension and diabetes contribute…

…patients with diabetes and combined dyslipidaemia, non HDL C is particularly relevant because it captures triglyceride rich lipoproteins in addition to LDL and other apoB…

…dose, and individual response. In general, statins reduce LDL C by approximately 30–55%; doubling the dose produces an additional reduction of approximately 6%. Clinical…

…target is not achieved. Addition of a PCSK9 inhibitor when the target remains unmet despite maximally tolerated statin therapy and ezetimibe. For patients with a…

…Many patients require evaluation with additional modalities, e.g cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), cardiac computerized tomography (CT), ergospirometry (exercise stress testing), and cardiac catheterization…

…problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been reduced by approximately 50% during the past few decades, the…

…problem worldwide. While the incidence of coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction has been reduced by approximately 50% during the past few decades, the…

…The conduction system allows for rapid spread of the depolarization to the contractile cells. Figure 3 illustrates the components of the conduction system and its…

…is important because it maximizes the contact surface between the transducer and the skin. Generous use of gel is recommended. In addition to the gel…

…chain must function and interact flawlessly to maximize survival. Figure 2. Data from the Swedish Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Registry Annual Report (2023). The single most pronounced…

…vena cava inferior < 2,1 cm and compressible in between 2,1 cm, almost not compressible Additional qualitative parameters Mild regurgiation Moderate regurgitation Severe…

…exclusively at the infarct related artery (IRA), or it may extend to additional non infarct related lesions. Culprit only revascularization treats the artery responsible for…

…circuits, lithium batteries, and Internet connected devices. Additional breakthroughs have been achieved in recent years, with the leadless pacemaker being the most promising improvement. 1…

…HPA axis, where a long half life produces more marked suppression. Stress dosing in known adrenal insufficiency A patient with primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's…

…is an additional absolute contraindication: the slightest suspicion of septic arthritis. If the picture is unclear — aspirate, send a culture, await the result and inject…

…respond to maximal ACTH stimulation, and it is rarely the injection itself that determines whether the result can be interpreted. What decides that is whether…

[calc_aorta] Sinus of Valsalva (SOV) and Aortic Root Assessment The sinus of Valsalva diameter (SOVd) is a critical measurement in evaluating aortic root morphology…

…has been instrumental in identifying and staging chronic kidney disease (CKD), facilitating early intervention and management. Standardization: Its widespread adoption has led to standardized reporting…

…normal normal or dilated dilated Size left ventricle normal normal or dilated dilated Additional PISA parameters Mild regurgiation Moderate regurgitation Severe regurgitation Regurgitation volume (ml…

…vena cava inferior < 2,1 cm and compressible in between 2,1 cm, almost not compressible Additional qualitative parameters Mild regurgiation Moderate regurgitation Severe…

…and hypertriglyceridaemia. Because triglyceride rich particles contribute additional cholesterol—often approximately 30 mg/dL—non HDL C treatment goals are generally approximately 30 mg/dL…

…according to age and the presence of concomitant risk factors. In contrast, patients with confirmed hypertension generally require BP lowering treatment without additional risk stratification…

…without any recurring costs. Purchasing this membership grants you permanent access to the website and there are no additional costs and no recurring costs. Ever.

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pharmacological basis Ezetimibe is a non statin lipid lowering agent that inhibits the Niemann–Pick C1 like 1 (NPC1L1) transporter…

…an adjunct to dietary measures and maximally tolerated statin therapy, with or without other LDL C lowering drugs, when additional LDL C reduction is required…

…specific 99th percentile upper reference limit. It is classified as acute when serial measurements demonstrate a rise and/or fall. A stable elevation indicates chronic…

…mass. Waist circumference and the waist to hip ratio provide additional information about visceral adiposity and may correlate more closely with outcomes than BMI, particularly…

…configuration and adequacy of collateral channels. Additional features associated with greater difficulty include a previously failed attempt, a blunt proximal stump, vessel bending, calcification and…

…while additional activity continues to confer benefit with progressively smaller incremental effects. Some activity is preferable to none, and benefit is observed below the conventional…

…or attempted chronic total occlusion recanalization. Patient preferences concerning additional medication, invasive investigation, and device based treatment. Refractory angina should be distinguished from symptoms caused…

…physical inactivity, and alcohol consumption. Additional considerations include psychosocial stress, obstructive sleep apnoea, social determinants of health, air pollution, family history, ethnicity, and frailty. Primary…

…diabetes specific vascular and metabolic abnormalities. Diabetes is associated with inflammation, thrombosis and accelerated atherosclerosis. In CKD, additional mechanisms include vascular stiffness and accelerated medial…

…endothelial dysfunction alone is not sufficient, and an additional trigger is required. Potential triggers include thrombus formation and sympathetic activation. Rho kinase may increase vascular…

…situations it is appropriate to connect additional electrodes in order to detect right ventricular infarction (leads V3R, V4R, V5R, V6R) and posterolateral infarction (leads V7…

…characteristics, clinical features, family history and genetic testing are important clues in the investigation. Additional examinations (e.g coronary angiography, cardiac MRI) are frequently necessary…

…familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, Addison's disease, renal failure, tamoxifen, lithium, thiazide diuretics, D vitamin and calcium overdose. ECG changes due to hypercalcemia Common ECG changes…

…The most important of these, and their implications, are as follows: The size of the thrombus (i.e the degree of artery obstruction): The greater…

…on the thighs and arm electrodes are placed proximally on the upper arm. Placement of chest (precordial) electrodes are not changed but additional leads may…

…Some individuals, however, possess an additional pathway between the atria and the ventricles. Such pathways may be conductive, such that they can transmit the atrial…

…and inhibits excitatory glutamate signalling, in part via NMDA receptors. With prolonged alcohol exposure the nervous system adapts through reduced GABA mediated inhibition and increased…

…The reference values below are taken from the consensus documents of the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI)…

…normal normal or enlarged enlarged Size left ventricle normal normal or enlarged enlarged Additional PISA parameters Mild regurgitation Moderate regurgitation Severe regurgitation EROA (cm²) <…

…between 4% and 6% is considered intermediate, and additional clinical judgment is required. A risk < 4% is considered low risk, and routine follow up…

…rhythm is not successful, blood pressure and ECG should be observed for an additional 15 minutes after the completion of the infusion. The initiated infusion…

…Four additional family members presented with similar ECG changes. Two relatives died from sudden cardiac death. Atrial fibrillation and ventricular arrhythmias were observed in the…

…limit escalation of beta blocker or CCB therapy. Nicorandil and trimetazidine are additional options in selected patients. Treatment choices should be integrated with management of…