…particularly in iatrogenic aortic injury. Iatrogenic lesions commonly follow cardiac surgery, coronary angiography or other invasive procedures, and affected patients may be relatively painless compared…

…Atherosclerotic lesions generally affect large and medium sized arteries. Pathological features include plaque formation with calcium deposition, medial thinning, destruction of muscular and elastic tissue…

…lesions Embolic debris obstructs the distal microcirculation and may be accompanied by microvascular constriction and endothelial or myocardial injury. Antithrombotic therapy may reduce embolization of…

…decades, the lesion progresses from a simple fatty streak to a complex fibroatheroma. Smooth muscle cells (SMCs) migrate from the tunica media into the intima…

…in the freeze. Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is needed for management. Cryoglobulinaemia…

…to a single lesion. Consequently, local revascularization must be accompanied by systemic treatment aimed at stabilizing the broader atherosclerotic disease. Pathophysiology Mechanisms of acute coronary…

…alter the local vascular environment. The extracellular matrix is an active component of lesion development rather than merely a structural scaffold. Smooth muscle cells and…

…acetylsalicylic acid at the first sign of skin rash, mucosal lesions, or hypersensitivity. Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit…

…Other anti inflammatory strategies have produced less favourable results. Canakinumab, a monoclonal antibody directed against interleukin 1β, provided proof of concept but was not…

…mitral valve apparatus. These lesions can cause acute severe regurgitation, a left to right shunt, tamponade, or sudden loss of effective cardiac output. Their recognition…

…infarction rates. Clinical presentation and symptoms The clinical presentation is determined primarily by the ACS syndrome and the haemodynamic consequences of the culprit lesion. Patients…

…caused by spasm. The absence of obstructive disease generally indicates a more favourable course than VA accompanied by severe fixed lesions. Nevertheless, patients who develop…

…artery. The clinical value of these techniques rests on their ability to characterize the anatomy responsible for a stenosis, define plaque morphology, identify occult lesions…

…intraluminal mass and lesion haziness raise suspicion of thrombus, although haziness is not specific. Intravascular imaging can identify plaque disruption, thrombus and other structural features…

…reserve (FFR) is an invasive, lesion specific physiological index used to estimate the functional significance of an epicardial coronary stenosis. It is defined during maximal…

…despite the absence of an angiographically obstructive lesion Coronary embolism or thrombus Epicardial coronary vasospasm Coronary microvascular dysfunction Spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) Standard angiography…

…crush technique, stent fracture or collapse Lesion specific angiographic features Residual dissection at a stent margin, impaired flow into or out of the stent, stent…

…some patients present with severe LMCA stenosis exacerbated by other conditions, and these must also be recognized. Prompt identification of LMCA involvement is therefore critical…

…an obstructive coronary lesion without avoidable delay. In contrast, haemodynamically stable patients without ST segment elevation after successful resuscitation from out of hospital cardiac arrest…

…The extent of jeopardized myocardium Left ventricular systolic function Diabetes and other comorbidities Anatomical complexity and completeness of possible revascularization A proximal lesion jeopardizes more…

…minute. Peptic ulcer remains the commonest cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding, but the differential diagnosis includes oesophagitis, gastritis, a Mallory Weiss tear, a Dieulafoy lesion…

…Other congenital anomalies include anomalous origin of a coronary artery from the pulmonary artery and anomalous origin of one coronary artery from the opposite aortic…

…microvascular disease and vasospasm may coexist with atherosclerosis or may be the dominant cause of ischaemia. Other mechanisms capable of obstructing coronary arteries include embolism…

…size A small post procedural luminal diameter A high degree of residual stenosis Long lesion length Diabetes Untreated edge dissection DES have reduced restenosis compared…

…ends at T12–L1, so these levels encounter only the roots of the cauda equina. If in doubt: choose a level lower, never higher. 3…

…ischemia. Inverted U waves are even more typical of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes…

…Lathundar Key messages Two things set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…C) is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…begins in parallel with the diagnostic work up. Obtain an interpretable 12 lead ECG within 10 minutes of first medical contact, attach continuous rhythm monitoring…

…history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre. Indications Brief attacks of vertigo, seconds…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…C and other apoB containing lipoproteins within the arterial wall. This initiates inflammatory reactions that promote plaque formation and progression. As the burden of retained…

…fatal bleeding in the cited analyses. Nevertheless, the clinical importance of non fatal gastrointestinal and intracranial haemorrhage is substantial, particularly because the absolute cardiovascular benefit…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…and other symptoms may occur without chest pain and should be considered anginal equivalents. The emergency evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around…

…stopping statins. There are three main questions discussed in media, blogs and on social plattforms: Is high cholesterol a true cause of coronary artery disease?…

…from selected populations, frequently with low or intermediate ischemic risk and under representation of patients with STEMI or other very high risk features. Noninferiority studies…

…or other vascular beds. Malignant hypertension represents an extreme form in which acute microvascular injury occurs, classically involving fibrinoid necrosis of small arteries in the…

…left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures…

…remain higher than that of never smokers for a prolonged period. In heavy smokers, cardiovascular risk falls within five years of stopping but may remain…

…beats per minute. Note that with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2…

…cancel each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest…

…myocardial ischemia. Other symptoms include dyspnea, pain radiating to the left arm/shoulder/throat, palpitations, back pain and selected cases of upper abdominal pain. An…

…1). This is possible by using two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves…

…tomographic images of the left ventricle. In PET (Positron Emission Tomography), radiotracers emit positrons. When a positron collides with an electron, they annihilate each other…

…opposite angle of observation. Other vectors may interfere with the injury currents, and inhibit them from being detected by leads with opposite angles of observation…

…atrial impulses are conducted to the ventricles. The atria and the ventricles are electrically dissociated from each other. This condition is referred to as atrioventricular…

…at the end of expiration, with the tape horizontal and without compressing the skin. Ratios and other measurements Measurement Calculation Threshold : : : Waist–hip ratio Waist…

…the bleeding risk of the procedure and by renal function. In markedly reduced renal function (dabigatran at eGFR <30 mL/min, the other DOACs at…

…marrow — choose the other side). A patient who cannot lie still — plan for sedation rather than abandoning the procedure. Choice of site The posterior superior…

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…the window of effect. The muscarinic effect may at the same time produce marked bradycardia and, rarely, asystole, and the test must therefore never be…

…applies where you work. They assume normal renal and hepatic function, a non pregnant adult of normal weight, and individual assessment. See the separate quick…

…organ damage. Isolated malignant retinopathy without other acute organ damage can often be treated more cautiously with oral drugs under careful observation [3,4]. A…

…physical activity and any other precipitating factor. Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient…

…rise can cause osmotic demyelination syndrome [1,2]. Hyponatraemia is primarily a disorder of water balance. The plasma sodium reflects the ratio between the body…

…A markedly raised GGT with the other tests normal is most often enzyme induction by alcohol or drugs and is often of no clinical significance…