…Whether hypertension is genuinely present Factors that may be contributing to elevated blood pressure Other cardiovascular risk factors and relevant comorbidities Evidence of hypertension mediated…

…In clinical practice, the condition is identified primarily through persistently elevated blood pressure despite multidrug treatment rather than through specific symptoms. The clinical importance lies…

…Ageing is associated with progressive increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP), while diastolic blood pressure (DBP) rises less steeply and may remain stable or decline…

…and vascular resistance. Advantages of measuring MAP over systolic blood pressure While systolic blood pressure (SBP) indicates the maximum pressure during heart contraction, it does…

…renal disease are bidirectionally related: hypertension accelerates CKD progression, while impaired renal function further increases blood pressure. Non traditional cardiovascular mechanisms include: Uraemia associated inflammation…

…further classified based on the intensity of tracer uptake and associated myocardial changes: Mild defects : Characterized by decreased tracer counts while preserving normal wall thickness…

…an elevated cardiac troponin concentration and new ST segment depression in new onset AF should not automatically be labelled type 2 myocardial infarction without further…

…administration, warnings, precautions, and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for…

…and pathophysiology Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is an inherited disorder characterized by persistently elevated plasma low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) from early life and a…

…particularly in patients with: Diabetes or other cardiometabolic risk factors Obesity Insulin resistance or metabolic syndrome Elevated triglycerides Low or apparently well controlled LDL C…

…with avoidance of second hand smoke and, where possible, other inhaled nicotine products. In cardiovascular medicine, the objective is not merely to reduce cigarette consumption…

…In acute PE, obstruction of pulmonary blood flow increases RV pressure load and may impair RV filling and forward output. The resulting syndrome may progress…

…containing lipoproteins, including: LDL Intermediate density lipoprotein (IDL) Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) Chylomicrons and other triglyceride rich particles Thus, non…

…an important consideration in older populations. Risk prediction is particularly relevant in adults with elevated blood pressure (BP), in whom absolute cardiovascular risk varies considerably…

…troponin elevation is not specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated troponin, so biomarker interpretation must be integrated with the…

…particularly cardiac amyloidosis Sepsis and other hyperdynamic states In cardiac amyloidosis, BNP or NT proBNP may be markedly elevated even when overt congestion is not…

…pathological examination. Pathologically, infarction represents myocardial cell death caused by prolonged ischaemia. The first cellular abnormalities of ischaemia include depletion of glycogen, relaxation of myofibrils…

…the cell membranes collapse whereby cellular proteins are released into the circulation. It is possible to detect elevated levels of myocardial proteins in blood within…

…China, and it has now spread to more than 170 countries and caused unprecedented damage to humans and societies. The number of confirmed cases is…

…Other causes include acute mechanical complications—particularly ventricular septal defect (VSD) and papillary muscle rupture with acute severe mitral regurgitation—predominant right ventricular (RV) infarction…

…mastering the nuances of anticoagulation requires an intimate understanding of the underlying pathophysiology, which is classically framed by Virchow’s triad: blood stasis, endothelial dysfunction…

…different types of dilated cardiomyopathy. Other causes of ventricular dilation ( e.g ischemic cardiomyopathy) must be excluded before establishing a diagnosis of DCM. Patient characteristics…

…particularly obstructive pulmonary disease, the use of theophylline, and elevated catecholamine states. EAT typically has an abrupt onset, although a brief warm up phase lasting…

…STEMI. This is further complicated by the fact that acute myocarditis may cause elevated troponin levels (myocardial cells may die as a result of inflammation)…

…wave, it is still referred to as a QRS complex . In other words, if ventricular depolarization only generates a Q wave and an R wave…

…a total occlusion in a coronary artery occurs (then of course, the ST segment will be elevated). T wave inversion (inverted / negative T waves) T…

…only after blood analyses confirm elevated levels of myocardial proteins. These proteins are cardiac troponins (henceforth referred to only as troponins). When elevated troponin levels…

…artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations with increased myocardial load…

…artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations with increased myocardial load…

…provide blood flow commensurate with the body’s requirements or can do so only at the cost of elevated filling pressures. Congestion and elevated filling…

…of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes. They may occur in both NSTEMI and STEMI…

…the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood gas determines the need for ventilatory…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…arrhythmia. 4. Take a full blood count, electrolytes, creatinine, glucose, high sensitivity troponin and, where needed, coagulation tests. Blood sampling must not delay reperfusion. 5…

…drugs . The diagnosis rests on the history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre…

…Corticosteroids and other NSAIDs: Increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding when combined with acetylsalicylic acid. Uric acid excretion agents (e.g., probenecid): Salicylates counteract the effect…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…only one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…NHLBI initiated the Framingham Heart Study, which demonstrated that high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were strongly associated with coronary…

…syndrome (ACS), DAPT is used to reduce recurrent myocardial infarction, stent thrombosis and other ischemic events after coronary angiography, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), or medical…

…blood pressure elevation accompanied by acute hypertension mediated target organ damage (HMOD). The European definition uses BP ≥180/110 mmHg with acute HMOD, although other…

…left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are revascularization procedures…

…or arteries supplying the limbs. In adults over 40 years of age, atherosclerosis is the predominant cause. Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia…

…with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2:1 block will be difficult…

…cancel each other out. However, the ECG may show features characteristic of biventricular hypertrophy. Biventricular hypertrophy ECG In case the ECG or other examinations suggest…

…when recording during chest pain is not consistent with myocardial ischemia. In other words, chest pain caused by ischemia will always result in ischemic ST…

…two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves. The cardinal difference between continuous wave…

…exposure. It is metabolically inert and diffuses freely across cell membranes, allowing for precise quantification of myocardial blood flow and assessment of coronary flow reserve…

…1 A ). Concave ST segment elevations, on the other hand, are much less likely to be caused by ischemia ( Figure 1 B ). This is noted…

…atrial impulses are conducted to the ventricles. The atria and the ventricles are electrically dissociated from each other. This condition is referred to as atrioventricular…

…and without compressing the skin. Ratios and other measurements Measurement Calculation Threshold : : : Waist–hip ratio Waist / hip Men 0.90, women 0.85 = abdominal…

…tranexamic acid where it is not contraindicated, and contact with the on call coagulation service. Send samples for INR, APTT, platelet count, fibrinogen and creatinine…

…change side, and avoid irradiated fields. Preparation and equipment Informed consent, current full blood count and coagulation screen, medication list. Chlorhexidine in alcohol, sterile gloves…

…incompatible infusions. Haemodialysis, plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure…

…any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is needed for management. Cryoglobulinaemia, cold agglutinin disease, cold urticaria. Relative: Basal cell…

…sick sinus syndrome or high grade AV block without pacemaker protection. Asthma and other marked obstructive airways disease — relative; the risk of bronchospasm is real…

…then 100 mg × 1 5–7 days Epiglottitis and other severe upper airway infection cefotaxime 1–2 g × 3 IV Depends on the diagnosis Always…

…retinopathy without other acute organ damage can often be treated more cautiously with oral drugs under careful observation [3,4]. A markedly raised blood pressure…