…ultrasound of the liver and biliary tract . Go through the medication and any herbal preparations carefully — drug induced liver injury is the commonest cause of…

…outcomes. The vast majority of infections with COVID 19 result in mild disease, with symptoms similar to seasonal flu (influenza) and other viral respiratory infections…

…serious (e. g. malignancy, amyloidosis). In case of suspicion of pericardial disease, in the first place, an echocardiographic examination is done. With echocardiography, good conditions…

…NSAIDs). Other contraindications: Hemophilia. Thrombocytopenia. Active gastric or duodenal ulcers. Liver cirrhosis. Severe heart failure. Doses 100 mg/day during the third trimester of pregnancy…

…Familial and genetic screening in cardiovascular medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease…

…sickness Aspiration Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Bronchospasm (asthma) Other : Coma Central hypoventilation syndromes Neuromuscular diseases Anemia The natural course of asphyxia Should ventilation be…

…follows: [...] Of every 10 such victims, the heart in 6 or 7 showed no recent disease in coronary arteries or in heart muscle. In other…

…management, treatment response and outcomes of cardiovascular disease. The biological differences between females and males arise partly from the chromosomal distinction between XX and XY…

…pain or a rapid deterioration in general condition may be the only signs of infection. Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive treatments can blunt the febrile response…

…all other causes have been ruled out. Inappropriate sinus tachycardia is presumably more common than previously thought and the condition may hamper the quality of…

…of blood flow to vital organs than systolic blood pressure alone. Predictive Value : Elevated MAP has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases…

…components of assessment. The history should include: previous TIA or stroke; symptoms suggesting current or recent cerebral ischaemia; known CAD, PAD, or other atherosclerotic disease…

…For example, exercise stress testing is no longer recommended in the initial evaluation of patients with suspected coronary artery disease (i.e CCS). The new…

…peripheral arterial disease, cerebrovascular disease, valvular heart disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and other arrhythmias or conduction abnormalities. CKD also worsens the prognosis of established…

…updated. For example, exercise stress testing is no longer recommended in the initial evaluation of patients with suspected coronary artery disease (i.e. CCS). The…

…over 40 years of age, atherosclerosis is the predominant cause. Other mechanisms include thrombosis, embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, arterial entrapment, cystic adventitial disease and trauma…

…Lathundar Key messages Two things set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood…

…recorded causes of cardiac arrest with a separate category for cardiac etiologies. Cause Definition Medical cause Includes cardiac arrest caused by heart disease, other medical…

…involvement Coexisting multivessel disease The extent of jeopardized myocardium Left ventricular systolic function Diabetes and other comorbidities Anatomical complexity and completeness of possible revascularization A…

…to rise, tracer uptake plateaus. This saturation effect can lead to an underestimation of blood flow in regions affected by significant coronary artery disease, potentially…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…is often indicative of a noncardiac source [4]. 3. Pneumonia with Pleurisy Pain Characteristics: Pleuritic pain is a common presentation [2]. 4. Other Systemic/Local…

…central clinical danger is progressive aortic wall disruption, rupture and compromise of branch vessels. Type A disease may cause cardiac tamponade, severe acute aortic regurgitation…

…some patients present with severe LMCA stenosis exacerbated by other conditions, and these must also be recognized. Prompt identification of LMCA involvement is therefore critical…

…drinking in either sex. Other definitions of unhealthy drinking include at least two drinks daily in women or three in men, or at least four…

…choice of device therapy and also suggest whether other interventions (e.g. heart failure management, evaluation for coronary artery disease, etc .) are warranted. Management of…

…or other non cardiovascular adverse outcomes. Mechanisms of action Colchicine Colchicine appears to exert several anti inflammatory effects relevant to coronary disease: Reduction of inflammasome…

…arteries. It frequently coexists with left main coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, left ventricular dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other manifestations of diffuse atherosclerosis. Percutaneous…

…atherothrombosis. It is usually precipitated by disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque through rupture or erosion. The relative contributions of plaque disease and thrombus vary considerably…

…Contraindications Absolute: Suspected melanoma or any other pigmented lesion of uncertain diagnosis. A lesion in which histology is needed for management. Cryoglobulinaemia, cold agglutinin disease…

…the broader atherosclerotic disease. Pathophysiology Mechanisms of acute coronary syndrome The major mechanisms producing acute coronary syndromes are: Plaque rupture with exposure of thrombogenic material…

…Figure 1. Flowchart showing the natural course of coronary artery disease and classification of acute coronary syndromes into STEMI, NSTEMI and unstable angina using ECG…

…depolarizes the ventricles) passes through the bundle of His, and hence it originates in the atria. In other words: tachycardias with narrow QRS complexes originate…

…continuity equation All valvular stenoses must be graded in order to optimize management according to disease severity. The most important parameter, for grading of stenoses…

…myocardial perfusion imaging Diagnosis of coronary artery disease (CAD) : Myocardial perfusion imaging can confirm or rule out CAD in patients with symptoms suggestive of CAD…

…and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for the prevention of…

…our understanding of the pathophysiology of cardiac disease. Ultrasound systems have become cheaper, more portable, more powerful, equipped with an increasing number of methods to…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…often necessary to normalize blood pressure. Management of hypertension requires careful consideration of other cardiovascular risk factors and coexisting conditions. Therapy must be tailored to…

…coronary syndrome Reinfarction reduced by approximately 30–40%; death reduced by approximately 35–45% Peripheral artery disease Lower risk of progression to chronic limb threat

…plasmapheresis or other extracorporeal therapy (requires a large bore dialysis catheter, not an ordinary triple lumen catheter). Measurement of central venous pressure and central venous…

…history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre. Indications Brief attacks of vertigo, seconds…

…three main questions discussed in media, blogs and on social plattforms: Is high cholesterol a true cause of coronary artery disease? Does diet affect cholesterol…

…JAMA): [...] Of every 10 such victims, the heart in 6 or 7 showed no recent disease in coronary arteries or in heart muscle. In other…

Procedurer The ankle brachial index is the cheapest and most accessible method of objectively demonstrating peripheral arterial disease, and it is needed more often than…

…COPD. Adenosine has caused mild to moderate exacerbation of asthma symptoms. Adenosine should be used with caution in patients with obstructive lung disease or asthma…

…it often holds true for cardiac arrests caused by chronic or acute ischemic heart disease, it is often not true in other circumstances (e.g…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental pathophysiological substrate for acute coronary syndromes (ACS), including…

Procedurer A corticosteroid injection into soft tissue gives rapid but time limited pain relief and rarely alters the natural history of the disease. In lateral…

…non pregnant adult of normal weight, and individual assessment. See the separate quick reference for dosing in impaired renal function. Respiratory tract Diagnosis Agent Dose…

…chadsva] The CHA₂DS₂ VA score has superseded the CHA₂DS₂ VASc score. As of 2025, it is recommended to use the CHA₂DS₂ VA score for stroke…

…Their clinical importance arises from the causal role of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL C) and other apoB containing lipoproteins in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…ECG changes and symptoms. Troponins and other biomarkers of myocardial necrosis (infarction) Myocardium can endure 20 to 30 minutes of complete ischemia. After this period…

…not distinguish different types of dilated cardiomyopathy. Other causes of ventricular dilation ( e.g ischemic cardiomyopathy) must be excluded before establishing a diagnosis of DCM…

…pronounced symptoms and other therapies have failed. Patients with structural heart disease or reduced left ventricular function are not eligible. Effects of propafenone and flecainide…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…balancing estimating the risks of bleeding. Components of the HEMORR₂HAGES Score The acronym HEMORR₂HAGES represents the following parameters: H epatic or renal disease (1 point…

…and other tachykinins, such as substance P. When ACE is inhibited, the resulting accumulation of these peptides irritates afferent neural pathways in the respiratory tract…