…the patient to stop, keep the arm still and lowered at each measurement, and not to talk. Otherwise ordinary activities, including work. No showering or…

…effort is terminated. Reliability as a function of workload In order for the exercise test to be reliable, the patient must perform maximally, without risking…

…Activities should be selected according to the individual’s preferences, functional status and daily routine, because enjoyable and convenient activities are more likely to be…

…should influence the choice between PCI and CABG. Physical examination findings are not specific to left main disease. The examination should nevertheless assess the consequences…

…Functional perfusion imaging primarily identifies haemodynamically important disease. Non obstructive coronary atherosclerosis not associated with demonstrable ischaemia may therefore remain undetected unless CT based coronary…

…Functional Status Treatment decisions should not be based on age alone. Assessment should include: Degree of frailty, preferably using validated clinical tests Ability to perform…

…and is not specific: motor neurone disease, myopathies and Lambert–Eaton syndrome may also give a positive result. A negative test does not exclude myasthenia…

…deteriorating renal function. Management is governed not by the creatinine value alone but by the course, urine output, volume status, electrolytes, acid base status and…

…clinical setting, haemodynamic status, coronary anatomy, comorbidities, procedural complexity, age, frailty, and anticipated adherence to antithrombotic therapy. Anatomical and functional completeness are not synonymous. Anatomically…

…during acute decompensated heart failure, but worsening renal function does not necessarily indicate reduced cardiac output or impaired renal perfusion. Many patients have preserved cardiac…

…levels, particularly in pregnancy [1,2]. Malignant hypertension is not entirely synonymous with a hypertensive emergency. The term denotes severe hypertension with advanced hypertensive retinopathy…

…Clinical assessment should include functional status and walking capacity, because these may reveal “masked” PAD in patients who do not exert themselves sufficiently to provoke…

…epicardial vasomotor abnormalities or structural and functional microvascular disease. Thus, the presence of non obstructive epicardial arteries does not exclude a coronary cause of symptoms…

…stunned, and hibernating myocardium Viable dysfunctional myocardium is myocardial tissue whose contractile function improves after coronary revascularization. This functional definition encompasses several physiological states. Brief…

…Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) acts primarily as a vasopressor. While detailed receptor pharmacology is not specified in the source material, it is utilised alongside inotropes in acute…

…is rather complicated and not within the scope of this discussion. The bottom line, however, is of direct clinical relevance and states that increased afterload…

…does not cover specific diagnostic modalities such as ECG, imaging, or electrophysiology in relation to ACE inhibitor therapy. Biomarkers and Laboratory Findings Monitoring renal function…

…treatment. Revascularization improves angina related health status, but it should not be undertaken when symptoms are present without anatomical or physiological criteria supporting revascularization. In…

…fats or proteins, whichever is available. ATP fuels all cellular functions, such as contraction and relaxation. Increasing cardiac workload by increasing heart rate and contractility…

…protective sheeting Hot water gives faster setting and more heat production — a risk of burns Document the distal neurovascular status before casting : sensation, motor function…

…or vascular tone can significantly impact MAP, reflecting the dynamic interplay between cardiac function and vascular resistance. Advantages of measuring MAP over systolic blood pressure…

…Treatment of the alcohol use disorder and planned follow up , not merely detoxification. Benzodiazepines reduce the severity of withdrawal and the risk of seizures and…

…does not regain its mechanical function until days to weeks have passed — atrial stunning — which means that the thromboembolic risk is greatest after, not during…

…arrest. Evaluation and Physical Examination The source material does not provide specific details regarding the physical examination or general evaluation of patients with bradycardia. Diagnostics…

…and its relationship to symptoms and haemodynamic status Whether heart failure is present and whether left ventricular systolic function is depressed or preserved Whether hypotension…

…cardiac amyloidosis Sepsis and other hyperdynamic states In cardiac amyloidosis, BNP or NT proBNP may be markedly elevated even when overt congestion is not apparent…

…the law of conservation of energy , which states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant over time; energy can neither be created…

…infarction and its clinical course Left ventricular function Residual ischaemic myocardium Ventricular arrhythmic risk Cardiovascular risk factors Functional capacity and degree of deconditioning Psychological status…

…biological differences between females and males arise partly from the chromosomal distinction between XX and XY individuals and are reflected in cardiovascular structure and function…

…phlegmasia cerulea dolens, ergotism, hypercoagulable states or iatrogenic vascular injury. Acute occlusion may also occur in an artery with established collateral circulation, particularly an occluded…

…unnoticed until adulthood. Echocardiography in CHD Echocardiography is performed in all patients with suspected CHD. Echocardiography provides detailed morphological and functional information. The vast majority…

…exercise tolerance test . Because the vast majority of all exercise stress tests in the United States are performed using a treadmill, the term treadmill test…

…arrest cases, the correlation between the initial pupillary reflex (observed upon emergency department arrival) and the neurological status assessed at 30 days was evaluated. The…

…leads are unipolar or bipolar. Implantation history and current indication. Device function and battery status. Whether the patient is pacemaker dependent. Whether the device has…

…arrest. The EuReCA registry includes resuscitation data from 27 European nations and the Get With the Guidelines Resuscitation Investigators reports data from the United States…

…and thus regurgitation. Ischemia manifests with myocardial akinesia or dyskinesia, which impairs papillary muscle function. Likewise, myocardial infarction affecting the papillary muscle or its connected…

…infarction Dyspnoea requires assessment of dynamic LV function, valve disease, pulmonary pressure, or haemodynamics Stress imaging is not recommended in patients undergoing urgent non cardiac…

…and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Fractional flow reserve (FFR) is an invasive, lesion specific physiological index used to estimate the functional significance of an epicardial…

…failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by symptoms and signs resulting from structural or functional impairment of ventricular filling or ejection of blood…

Conduction defects ECG Left bundle branch block (LBBB) Left bundle branch block (LBBB) results from anatomical or functional impairment of the left bundle branch (LBB)…

…Index Mechanism Advantages Limitations Key evidence Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR) Ratio of distal coronary pressure (Pd) to aortic pressure (Pa) at maximal pharmacologic hyperemia (adenosine…

…More specifically, the QRS complex displays rsr’, rsR’ or rSR’ pattern (rSR' is the most common; Figure 2). Occasionally the S wave does not reach…

…as those older than 75 years, are not a homogeneous population: biological age, frailty, multimorbidity, sarcopenia, cognitive function, functional capacity, and health related quality of…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…increasingly combines anatomical imaging with functional assessment. A central practical principle is that the visual severity of a stenosis does not reliably establish its haemodynamic…

…CAD), in non obstructive coronary arteries, or in patients with intermediate lesions that do not produce physiologically significant flow limitation. The mechanisms are incompletely defined…

…mmHg during exercise [4] . This hemodynamic criterion underscores that "preserved" ejection fraction does not equate to normal cardiac function, but rather to a state where…

…intraventricular conduction delays (defects), which are caused by functional or anatomical defects in the components of the intraventricular conduction system. Because the conduction system is…

…be well NIHSS A complete score by a physician or nurse experienced in stroke Functional impact A low NIHSS does not exclude a disabling deficit…

Procedurer The value of the exercise test lies not in ST depression alone but in the overall picture : exercise capacity, symptoms, blood pressure response, heart…

…Lowering the body temperature to 33 °C has not been shown to improve survival or the neurological outcome compared with keeping the patient normothermic — but…

…on a central area of block, which encompasses both an anatomical barrier (the inferior vena cava) and a functional component. When the direction of the…

…Functional limitation is commonly described using the New York Heart Association (NYHA) classification. The source material specifically frames many pharmacological recommendations for patients with symptomatic…

…CCTA or functional imaging should generally be preferred when available. Exercise ECG is not recommended as a rule out test in this group if those…

…objective evidence of structural or functional cardiac abnormality or raised natriuretic peptides is not mandatory for HFmrEF when the diagnosis of heart failure is clinically…

…fraction (LVEF) ≥50%. Objective evidence of structural or functional cardiac abnormality consistent with left ventricular diastolic dysfunction or increased filling pressures, including raised natriuretic peptides…

…thrombus, although haziness is not specific. Intravascular imaging can identify plaque disruption, thrombus and other structural features that may not be evident on angiography alone…

…Symptoms may resemble those of obstructive epicardial coronary disease or vasospastic angina. The clinical presentation is not sufficiently specific to identify the underlying mechanism. Microvascular…

…and its treatment options have been addressed. ANOCA/INOCA should not be labelled refractory before further diagnostic evaluation. The underlying endotype must first be defined…

…its most severe form, known as no reflow, structural and functional impairments sustain vascular obstruction. Endothelial dysfunction triggers leukocyte and platelet activation, while thrombotic debris…