…contractile function worsens. Chronic aortic regurgitation also leads to increasing LVEDP and LAP, which in turn results in pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary edema. Table 1…

…the pulmonary circulation and cause pulmonary edema. Also, left ventricular exhaustion results in diminished cardiac output, potential hypotension and cardiogenic shock. Chronic mitral regurgitation Chronic…

…most common risk factor for PH. It produces postcapillary PH through elevation of left atrial and pulmonary venous pressure. In some patients, chronic postcapillary pr

…of life. The underlying aetiology is heterogeneous. Chronic heart failure evaluation should therefore seek reversible or treatable causes. The source material identifies coronary disease, hypertension…

…thromboembolism is a chronic and serious condition. Mortality in pulmonary embolism is up to 20%, and roughly 30% of patients with pulmonary embolism or deep…

…management may be considered The sPESI (simplified Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index) gives 1 point each for age 80 years, cancer, chronic cardiac or pulmonary disease…

…increases cardiac output, and lowers pulmonary artery pressure without increasing myocardial oxygen consumption. The inotropic effect of levosimendan is not affected by the concurrent use…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and clinical classification Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy comprise chronic or pre existing hypertension, gestational hypertension, and preeclampsia. Collectively, they affect approximately…

CPR It is commonly stated that approximately 80% of all cardiac arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being…

Echocardiography Constrictive pericarditis: the end stage of pericardial inflammation Constrictive pericarditis is the result of chronic inflammation of the pericardium. In principle, all causes of…

…oxygen. Acute on chronic hypercapnic failure in obesity hypoventilation and neuromuscular disease. Hypercapnic failure in cardiogenic pulmonary oedema that does not improve with CPAP alone…

…risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hay fever, or nasal polyps (increased risk of hypersensitivity…

…Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) : Indicates systemic atherosclerosis. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) : Associated with higher perioperative risk. Clinical Applications Personalized Decision Making : SYNTAX Score II…

…2), obesity, smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Moreover, certain other tachyarrhythmias predispose to developing atrial fibrillation: atrial flutter, AVNRT and…

…Respiratory conditions : Tension pneumothorax Drowning Airway obstruction Hanging Pneumonia High altitude sickness Aspiration Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Bronchospasm (asthma) Other : Coma Central hypoventilation syndromes…

…patient with COPD. Pneumonia, heart failure, pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax and acute coronary syndrome must be actively considered [1]. Do the following early: 1. Assess airway…

…coach actively, and do not accept a trace you would not be prepared to show a colleague. Indications Investigation of chronic cough, dyspnoea, wheeze or…

…The shunt fraction (Qp/Qs) is a critical hemodynamic parameter used to quantify the ratio of pulmonary blood flow (Qp) to systemic blood flow (Qs)…

…Cardiac causes Systemic causes Heart failure Sepsis Myocarditis Chronic kidney disease Cardiomyopathy Stroke or subarachnoid haemorrhage Takotsubo syndrome Pulmonary embolism Recent coronary revascularization Infiltrative disease…

…Normal in newborns. Right ventricular hypertrophy. Acute cor pulmonale (pulmonary embolism). Chronic cor pulmonale (COPD, pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary valve stenosis). Lateral ventricular infarction. Pre excitation…

…Common manifestations are hypertensive encephalopathy, intracerebral haemorrhage, acute coronary syndrome, acute left ventricular failure with pulmonary oedema, acute aortic syndrome, acute kidney injury, microangiopathic haemolysis…

…HF), acute Heart failure (HF), chronic Bradycardia (second line alternative) Medium dose : 3.0 10.0 μg/kg/min. + ++++ + +++++ Medium dose dopamine activates β1…

…particularly useful when symptoms suggest HF but the diagnosis remains uncertain. Acute HF generally produces higher BNP and NT proBNP concentrations than chronic, stable disease…

…collateral circulation. A first or anterior infarction. Single vessel disease without collateral support. Chronic kidney disease, particularly in relation to VSR. Large infarction, especially for…

…LV) filling pressures, defined invasively as a pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) ≥15 mmHg at rest or ≥25 mmHg during exercise [4] . This hemodynamic criterion…

…HF), acute Heart failure (HF), chronic Bradycardia (second line alternative) Medium dose : 3.0 10.0 μg/kg/min. + ++++ + +++++ Medium dose dopamine activates β1…

…be taken at the next regular time. Use with caution in patients with asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Dyspnea has been reported in patients…

…dissection. PAU is particularly associated with advanced age, smoking, coronary artery disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, renal insufficiency, systemic hypertension, and concomitant abdominal aortic aneurysm…

…Normal in newborns. Right ventricular hypertrophy. Acute cor pulmonale (pulmonary embolism). Chronic cor pulmonale (COPD, pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary valve stenosis). Lateral ventricular infarction. Pre excitation…

…if tolerated 70–79 Diabetes 120–130 70–79 Chronic kidney disease 130–139 70–79 Avoid a systolic pressure < 120 mmHg and a…

…diastolic reserve becomes evident, with a rise in left atrial and pulmonary pressures that contributes to exertional breathlessness and reduced exercise capacity. Multiorgan and comorbidity…

…of all major peripheral pulses. Blood pressure measurement in both arms. Cardiac auscultation. Pulmonary auscultation. Evaluation for heart failure. Assessment for circulatory compromise, haemodynamic instability…

…holds true for cardiac arrests caused by chronic or acute ischemic heart disease, it is often not true in other circumstances (e.g. pulmonary embolism…

…state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary disease can progress or destabilize abruptly, leading to an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Clinical…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a complete or nearly complete coronary arterial obstruction that has persisted for…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

Cardiology Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

ECG Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…

…ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and therapeutic objectives Antianginal therapy in chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) is directed primarily at reducing myocardial ischaemia and relieving…

…be selected according to clinical judgement. Low to moderate probability: greater than 5% to 50% in the chronic coronary syndrome pathway. Coronary CT angiography (CCTA…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Refractory angina is a chronic syndrome of persistent ischaemic symptoms despite the exhaustion of conventional therapeutic options…

…how acute the condition is. A patient with a chronic plasma sodium of 112 mmol/L may be relatively unaffected, while a rapid fall from…

…Staging of chronic kidney disease Stage eGFR Description : : : G1 ≥ 90 Normal or high G2 60–89 Mildly reduced G3a 45–59 Mildly to moderately reduced…

…therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and post myocardial…

…heart failure, and chronic kidney disease (CKD). These agents interfere with the renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for the conversion…

…extensive MI with necrosis and scar formation Diffuse myocardial fibrosis Reversible ischemic dysfunction Chronic hypoperfusion with hibernating myocardium Post ischemic stunning Adverse left ventricular (LV…

…component of cardiovascular prevention, particularly in patients with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and acute coronary syndromes…

…acute when serial measurements demonstrate a rise and/or fall. A stable elevation indicates chronic myocardial injury . Myocardial injury is not synonymous with myocardial infarction…

…It is uncommon for chronic pericardial effusions to cause sudden cardiac arrest since these cases tend to be recognized and managed before circulatory collapse occurs…

…3 IV Pneumonia, in chronic lung disease amoxicillin 750 mg × 3 PO 5–7 days or benzylpenicillin 3 g × 4 IV Pneumonia, suspected atypical pathogen…

…Comment : : : MAP ≥ 65 mmHg 80–85 mmHg in chronic hypertension or when there are signs of inadequate perfusion Urine output 0.5 mL/kg/h…

…ankle brachial index before the first bandage is applied . Indications Venous leg ulcer — about 70% of all leg ulcers. Chronic venous oedema, lipodermatosclerosis, stasis dermatitis…

…for pain). An opioid is rarely the right choice in nociplastic or neuropathic pain, in chronic non cancer pain, or in headache. A failure to…

…Indications Acute urinary retention. Chronic urinary retention with renal impairment or a large residual volume. A need for accurate measurement of urine output in a…

…1.73 m². Advantages of MDRD eGFR Clinical utility: The MDRD equation has been instrumental in identifying and staging chronic kidney disease (CKD), facilitating early…

…including the number of lesions, their location, and specific characteristics such as bifurcations, chronic total occlusions (CTOs), calcification, and thrombus presence. These factors are weighted…