…state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary disease can progress or destabilize abruptly, leading to an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Clinical…

…Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Heart failure is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot provide blood flow commensurate with the body’s requirements…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

…angiography performed for another indication. When clinically significant, it may present with chronic angina, an anginal equivalent or exertional dyspnoea. Patients may continue to have…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

…artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations with increased myocardial load…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

…artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations with increased myocardial load…

…ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and therapeutic objectives Antianginal therapy in chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) is directed primarily at reducing myocardial ischaemia and relieving…

…an ischaemic mechanism. Clinical assessment and estimation of pre test probability Symptoms and clinical context The assessment begins with the clinical presentation, including the character…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and clinical classification Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy comprise chronic or pre existing hypertension, gestational hypertension, and preeclampsia. Collectively, they affect approximately…

…intervention (PCI), including attempted recanalization of a chronic total coronary occlusion. Angina or ischaemia with non obstructive coronary arteries (ANOCA/INOCA), after appropriate investigation has…

Echocardiography Constrictive pericarditis: the end stage of pericardial inflammation Constrictive pericarditis is the result of chronic inflammation of the pericardium. In principle, all causes of…

…infarction or ischemic episode to result in ventricular arrhythmia, it must coincide with other pro arrhythmogenic factors. The emergence of ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation…

…how acute the condition is. A patient with a chronic plasma sodium of 112 mmol/L may be relatively unaffected, while a rapid fall from…

…people with a low muscle mass — the elderly, the undernourished, amputees, patients with hepatic cirrhosis — creatinine based eGFR substantially overestimates renal function. Staging of chronic…

…medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and post myocardial infarction (MI) care…

…and chronic kidney disease (CKD). These agents interfere with the renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin…

…of repeated ischemic episodes or chronic reductions in perfusion. The amount and distribution of both viable and nonviable myocardium, together with coronary anatomy and the…

…therapy is a central component of cardiovascular prevention, particularly in patients with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), peripheral artery disease (PAD)…

…a rise and/or fall. A stable elevation indicates chronic myocardial injury . Myocardial injury is not synonymous with myocardial infarction. Cardiac troponin identifies injury to…

…chronic thromboembolic obstruction, or a range of miscellaneous conditions. Because several mechanisms may coexist, diagnosis and classification must integrate haemodynamics with the patient’s clinical…

…with tamponade has an exceptionally poor prognosis. In the vast majority of these cases, the tamponade develops acutely or subacutely. It is uncommon for chronic…

…workload. Levosimendan is used in severe acute or chronic heart failure. Consider urgent angiography in patients with unknown etiology for acute severe heart failure. A…

…oxygen. Acute on chronic hypercapnic failure in obesity hypoventilation and neuromuscular disease. Hypercapnic failure in cardiogenic pulmonary oedema that does not improve with CPAP alone…

…3 IV Pneumonia, in chronic lung disease amoxicillin 750 mg × 3 PO 5–7 days or benzylpenicillin 3 g × 4 IV Pneumonia, suspected atypical pathogen…

…Comment : : : MAP ≥ 65 mmHg 80–85 mmHg in chronic hypertension or when there are signs of inadequate perfusion Urine output 0.5 mL/kg/h…

…leg ulcers. Chronic venous oedema, lipodermatosclerosis, stasis dermatitis. Prevention of recurrence after a healed venous ulcer. After deep vein thrombosis with post thrombotic syndrome. Differential…

…for pain). An opioid is rarely the right choice in nociplastic or neuropathic pain, in chronic non cancer pain, or in headache. A failure to…

…chronic cough, dyspnoea, wheeze or reduced exercise capacity. Suspected asthma or COPD — diagnosis and follow up. Risk groups: current or former smokers over 40 with…

…Indications Acute urinary retention. Chronic urinary retention with renal impairment or a large residual volume. A need for accurate measurement of urine output in a…

…reported with acetylsalicylic acid. Discontinue acetylsalicylic acid at the first sign of skin rash, mucosal lesions, or hypersensitivity. Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other…

…critical, especially in individuals with near normal kidney function, alternative equations like the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD EPI) equation may offer improved accuracy…

…ICU (intensive care unit) or ER (emergency room). Careful electrocardiographic and hemodynamic monitoring with ECG, central vein catheter and intra arterial catheter (A line) is…

…standardized method to evaluate the anatomical complexity of CAD, particularly in patients with multivessel disease or left main coronary artery disease . It integrates multiple variables…

…with worse outcomes. Unprotected Left Main Disease : Increases complexity and risk. Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) : Indicates systemic atherosclerosis. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) : Associated with…

…chronic, when troponin elevation persists without such a change. Myocarditis, sepsis, takotsubo cardiomyopathy, valvular disease, arrhythmias, and heart failure are among the conditions associated with…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…is applicable Moderate or severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) Hypertension mediated organ damage (HMOD) Probable or definite familial hypercholesterolaemia Other markedly abnormal single risk factors…

…recently recovering from myocardial infarction or acute coronary syndrome. Patients with stable or chronic atherosclerotic coronary disease, many of whom have a previous acute coronary…

…of shock. Patients with moderate to severe chronic kidney disease have a higher burden of comorbidity and an increased risk of in hospital complications, including…

…substantially with chronic kidney disease, particularly diabetic kidney disease and advanced CKD. The clinical course is often more rapidly reversible than that of other forms…

…major or life threatening bleeding. The clinical presentation, whether ACS or chronic coronary syndrome (CCS). Whether and how PCI was performed. The need for non…

…of lipid lowering treatment for patients with chronic coronary syndrome, acute coronary syndrome (ACS), atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease, and other very high risk settings described…

…of ischaemia represents acute myocardial injury rather than MI. Persistent elevation without a significant dynamic change is consistent with chronic myocardial injury. Non ischaemic conditions…

…angina caused by disease in the treated segment. The clinical implications range from asymptomatic angiographic disease to chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), acute coronary syndrome (ACS)…

…offering profound benefits in major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), chronic kidney disease (CKD), and peripheral artery disease (PAD)…

…generally with ezetimibe where appropriate. Established clinical atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and FH are principal settings in which these drugs have received approval. In chronic…

…or progress to chronic limb threatening ischaemia (CLTI). Clinical presentation and symptoms Asymptomatic and atypical disease Fewer than half of patients with PAD have typical…

…tear commonly develops at the interface between infarcted and viable myocardium. The incidence has fallen substantially with contemporary reperfusion, particularly primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)…

…Smoking cessation is the complete discontinuation of tobacco smoking, with avoidance of second hand smoke and, where possible, other inhaled nicotine products. In cardiovascular medicine…

…may present with: ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). Non ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). Unstable myocardial ischaemia. Ventricular arrhythmia or sudden cardiac arrest. Chronic coronary…

…environmental factors and genetic background. Thrombotic susceptibility is likewise affected by inflammation and other systemic influences. The severity of myocardial injury is determined not only…

…Myocarditis Chronic kidney disease Cardiomyopathy Stroke or subarachnoid haemorrhage Takotsubo syndrome Pulmonary embolism Recent coronary revascularization Infiltrative disease, such as amyloidosis or sarcoidosis Other cardiac…

…chronic coronary syndromes and acute coronary syndromes HF across the spectrum of left ventricular ejection fraction AF and other arrhythmias Ischaemic stroke PAD CKD with…

…parallel with increasing myocardial load (and hence oxygen demand). The most common causes of acute aortic regurgitation are aortic dissection , endocarditis and trauma . Chronic aortic…

…Rhythm control, on the other hand, attempts to restore sinus rhythm by use of antiarrhythmic drugs. Randomized controlled trials have not demonstrated any clear difference…

…paroxysmal cases are common in clinical practice. Chronic flutter is, however, very rare. Thus, as compared with atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter is not capable of…