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Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Diagnosis and Initial Evaluation

…state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary disease can progress or destabilize abruptly, leading to an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Clinical…

Chronic Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction: Four-Pillar Therapy

…Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Heart failure is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot provide blood flow commensurate with the body’s requirements…

Chronic Kidney Disease as a Cardiovascular Risk Factor

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

Percutaneous Coronary Intervention for Chronic Total Occlusions: Indications and Outcomes

…angiography performed for another indication. When clinically significant, it may present with chronic angina, an anginal equivalent or exertional dyspnoea. Patients may continue to have…

ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI): Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Atherosclerosis: Pathogenesis from Fatty Streak to Plaque Rupture

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: Assessment and Treatment

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

Coronary Artery Disease

…artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations with increased myocardial load…

Non-ST Elevation Acute Myocardial Infarction (NSTEMI) and Unstable Angina

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

Stable Coronary Artery Disease (Angina Pectoris): Diagnosis, Evaluation, Management

…artery disease has been classified into the following three syndromes: Stable angina pectoris : Symptoms appear primarily during exercise or other situations with increased myocardial load…

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