…body reaching the stroma or deeper. The absence of a slit lamp — the cornea should not be instrumented without magnification. With a suspected chemical injury…

…and supplemental oxygen [1]. Distinguish between: Acidaemia and alkalaemia , which describe the current pH of the blood. Acidosis and alkalosis , which describe processes that lower…

…Classification of office blood pressure Category Systolic Diastolic : : : : : Optimal < 120 and < 80 Normal 120–129 and/or 80–84 High normal 130–139…

…screen (BAS test) Blood group confirmation and antibody screening. If the screen is negative, a unit is selected electronically against the blood group Standard for…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and Clinical Context Blood pressure management in older adults must account for chronological age, biological age, frailty, multimorbidity, cognitive status, functional…

…the circumference, do not guess. Measure the blood pressure in both arms when fitting the device. Use the arm with the higher pressure, or the…

…blood pressure. 6. Repeat the measurement after a few minutes' rest, if the patient's condition allows. 7. With titratable intravenous treatment and an unstable…

…Exercise performance (functional capacity, exercise capacity) Heart rate: maximal heart rate, heart rate response Blood pressure reaction ECG reaction: ST changes, T wave changes, arrhythmias…

…equally compromised, leading to uniform perfusion that may appear deceptively normal on SPECT. Detecting multivessel disease requires quantification of absolute coronary blood flow. This is…

…of blood flowing through the coronary arteries per unit of time. Coronary flow reserve (CFR) quantifies the capacity of coronary arteries to augment blood flow…

Cardiology Definition and pathophysiology Blood pressure is a continuous cardiovascular exposure rather than a binary distinction between normotension and hypertension. Its long term relationship with…

Cardiology Emergency medicine Definition and Pathophysiology A hypertensive emergency is severe blood pressure elevation accompanied by acute hypertension mediated target organ damage (HMOD). The European…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Secondary hypertension is elevated blood pressure attributable to a specific, identifiable underlying cause. It should be considered in every…

…Haemodynamic measurements become interpretable only when related to one another. A low blood pressure may be due to low flow, low vascular tone or both…

…that the aortic valve leaks during diastole, such that blood regurgitates back from the aorta into the left ventricle. This results in volume overload in…

CPR Hypoxia and asphyxiation Hypoxia refers to a reduced partial pressure of oxygen in the blood. Asphyxia is characterized by insufficient ventilation, leading to hypoxia…

…the Doppler effect is provided here. The Doppler effect is used to assess the velocity and direction of blood flow. This is possible because sound…

…stress echocardiography) has greater diagnostic accuracy. Contraindications Absolute: Acute coronary syndrome within 48 hours, or ongoing unstable angina. Uncontrolled symptomatic arrhythmia. Symptomatic severe aortic stenosis…

…the plasma glucose, a blood gas and an ECG all come before complete identification of the substance. Treatment of acute poisoning consists of four parallel…

…nitroglycerin regularly may have developed tolerance and require higher doses, alternatively nitroprusside to achieve desirable blood pressure lowring effect. Drug Nitroglycerin Brand names Gonitro ®…

…Pulmonary hypertension. Blood pressure control. Mechanism of action Nitroprusside provides nitric oxide (NO) that induces vasodilatation of both arterioles and veins via generation of cyclic…

…crisis. Mechanism of action Phentolamine is a non selective alpha adrenergic blocker. Phentolamine reduces blood pressure while increasing catecholamine activity. Effects Primarily causes afterload reduction…

…Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Heart failure is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot provide blood flow commensurate with the body’s requirements…

…failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome in which the heart cannot deliver blood at a rate appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, elevated blood pressure and impaired glucose regulation. Diagnosis is based on the coexistence of defined clinical and laboratory components; the diagnostic criteria…

…a distinct disease. It identifies patients whose blood pressure remains uncontrolled despite intensive antihypertensive treatment and who therefore require assessment for pseudo resistance, secondary hypertension…

…and infarction Definition and conceptual framework Acute coronary occlusion is the abrupt or progressive reduction of coronary blood flow sufficient to produce myocardial ischaemia and…

Echocardiography Tissue Doppler (Tissue Velocity Imaging) Previous chapters on Doppler imaging have all focused on measurements of blood flow. However, the Doppler effect can also…

…with a target of 88 to 92 percent until the risk of hypercapnia has been assessed. 3. Take an arterial blood gas in respiratory compromise…

…time windows, indications and contraindications for intravenous thrombolysis, weight based tenecteplase dosing, blood pressure thresholds, monitoring, complications and when thrombectomy should be considered. The doses…

…cessation of prolonged and heavy alcohol intake. The condition can develop despite a measurable or high blood alcohol concentration, particularly in patients with marked tolerance…

…anticoagulant? The unstable patient Immediate electrical cardioversion, without delay, in any of the following: A systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg caused by the arrhythmia…

…blood pressure can be lowered cautiously further over the following 24 to 48 hours [3,4,6]. This is a general principle, not a universal…

…procedure or angiographic intervention. Summon anaesthesia, the operating specialty, the blood bank and, where needed, coagulation expertise at the same time [1]. Activate the local…

…imaging, the blood count or contact with the patient's own clinic delay empirical antibiotics [1]. A practical target: give the first dose of broad…

…across the aortic valve. Trace the Doppler profile to calculate the AV VTI, representing the distance blood travels during systole. 3. Right Ventricular Outflow Tract…

…induce severe hypotension. • Clonidine is not recommended in most patients with severe cardiovascular disease or in those who are otherwise haemodynamically unstable. The benefit of…

…an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor. Enalaprilat lowers blood pressure by inhibiting ACE. Effects • The hypotensive effect of enalaprilat depends on plasma volume and plasma…

…beta adrenergic receptor blocker. • Esmolol lowers blood pressure immediately (within 1 minute) • Esmolol may also be used to control supraventricular tachycardia (rate control). • Esmolol may…

…receptor agonist. • Lowers blood pressure while maintaining or increasing kidney perfusion. Effects Dopamine 1 receptor agonists lower systemic blood pressure and increase renal perfusion. Time…

…Hypertensive emergency is defined as significantly elevated blood pressure (systolic pressure ≥180 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure ≥120 mmHg) with concurrent signs of acute organ…

…60 to 65 mmHg is generally considered the minimum threshold necessary to ensure sufficient blood flow to vital organs such as the brain and kidneys…

…blocker. Effects Lowers blood pressure, reduces heart rate, myocardial oxygen consumption and myocardial contractility. Less pronounced blood pressure lowering effect than esmolol and labetalol. Time…

…ischaemia (ALI) is an abrupt reduction in arterial perfusion of an upper or lower limb that causes tissue metabolic requirements to exceed available blood flow…

…In acute PE, obstruction of pulmonary blood flow increases RV pressure load and may impair RV filling and forward output. The resulting syndrome may progress…

…reducing myocardial ischaemia and relieving anginal symptoms, while maintaining tolerability and adherence. Selection should be individualized according to blood pressure, heart rate, left ventricular function…

…syndrome in which increased intrapericardial pressure compresses the heart and impairs ventricular filling. It generally results from accumulation of pericardial fluid, blood, or, less commonly…

…and/or the coronary microcirculation. These abnormalities may produce a transient mismatch between myocardial oxygen demand and coronary blood supply, resulting in myocardial hypoperfusion or…

…1960s. In 1948 the NHLBI initiated the Framingham Heart Study, which demonstrated that high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were…

…compartments. Heart failure is defined physiologically by the inability of the heart to provide blood flow appropriate to tissue requirements unless filling pressures are elevated…

…symptoms, a 12 lead ECG, heart rate and blood pressure are monitored. The test is generally symptom limited and is stopped when limiting symptoms, significant…

…international guidance. One framework defines confirmed hypertension as blood pressure consistently above 130/80 mmHg on more than two measurements obtained at separate times, whereas…

…commonly, retrograde. Distal re entry tears may allow blood to return to the true lumen, whereas disruption of the adventitia can result in rupture. An…

…T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood pressure, lipids and smoking cessation. Weight loss was considered extremely…

…same Virchow who unraveled thrombosis). He used te term to describe a reduction of blood flow to tissues and organs. A few decades later Cohnheim…

…imaging (MPI) with single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET) is a radionuclide based method for assessing regional myocardial blood flow…

…formation of an intramural haematoma that compresses the true lumen. The resulting reduction in coronary blood flow may produce myocardial ischaemia, acute coronary syndrome (ACS)…

…patient with symptoms of myocardial ischaemia. The immediate therapeutic objective is restoration of coronary blood flow to the infarct zone, thereby limiting infarct size and…

…of ischaemic symptoms. The immediate pathophysiological objective is restoration of blood flow to the infarct related myocardial territory and limitation of infarct size. The extent…

…etiologies when promptly and appropriately addressed. Both venous and arterial blood gases can be utilized for the analysis of electrolyte levels. Electrocardiography (ECG) serves as…