…mortality The modern concept of rehabilitation has evolved from early post infarction physical activity programmes into a structured centre of secondary cardiovascular prevention in which…

…diabetes, or chronic kidney disease. Evaluation and Physical Examination The diagnostic assessment should establish that hypertension is genuine, identify potentially remediable causes, assess comorbidities and…

…is recurrent clinical deterioration despite careful follow up and appropriate therapy. In this setting, the risk of sudden death and end stage heart failure is…

…uncomplicated acute coronary syndrome when LVEF is 40% is not definitive. Observational studies have yielded conflicting results, and the appropriate duration of therapy in p

…cardiovascular impact in women. Obesity, physical inactivity and depression are more common in women. Dyslipidaemia, hypertension, diabetes and obesity become increasingly prevalent after the menopausal…

…hypercholesterolaemia, and sedentary behaviour; family history, particularly in the broader assessment of peripheral arterial and aortic disease; planned surgery, especially carotid endarterectomy (CEA), coronary artery…

…regular physical activity, avoidance of smoking, and adequate sleep. The process should begin early in life. Primordial prevention in childhood may reduce the subsequent development…

…despite the exhaustion of conventional therapeutic options. It is defined by symptoms lasting more than 3 months and attributable to established reversible myocardial ischaemia in…

…and physical examination The objective of decongestion is clinical euvolemia rather than an isolated numerical change in weight. Assessment should integrate the history, physical examination…

…infarction Definition and pathophysiology In acute coronary syndrome (ACS) with multivessel coronary artery disease (MVD), revascularization may be directed exclusively at the infarct related artery…

… in these patients, symptoms may be challenging to differentiate from normal physiological changes of pregnancy. Evaluation and Physical Examination The source material does not provide…

…symptomatic hypotension. Diagnostics The source material does not cover specific diagnostic modalities such as ECG, imaging, or electrophysiology in relation to ACE inhibitor therapy. Biomarkers…

…afferent neural pathways in the respiratory tract. This process is not dose dependent. Similarly, angioedema occurring in the setting of ACE inhibitor therapy is bradykinin…

…and potentially aldosterone levels. Clinical Presentation and Symptoms In the management of heart failure, digoxin improves hemodynamics without increasing heart rate or decreasing blood pressure…

…presentations The symptoms of RVI commonly occur in the setting of an inferior myocardial infarction. The available source material emphasizes the haemodynamic and physical manifestations…

…mitral stenosis Rheumatic heart disease Congenital mitral stenosis Calcification of the mitral valve Complications to radiation therapy Mucopolysaccharidosis Carcinoid tumor Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) Rheumatoid…

…or physical reactions (radiation therapy), frequently involves the conduction system. In these conditions, involvement of the AVN and the conduction system occurs more often than…

…STEMI cases, a precipitating factor such as vigorous physical exercise, emotional stress, or a medical or surgical illness is present before the event. Although STEMI…

…with symptoms. Current guidance supports revascularisation for significant left main stenosis irrespective of symptomatic status or the documented ischaemic burden. In chronic coronary syndrome, revascularisation…

…physical examination of patients prior to sotalol initiation. Diagnostics Electrocardiography (ECG) Electrocardiographic monitoring is central to the safe initiation and maintenance of sotalol therapy. The…

…if the diagnosis is uncertain. Echocardiography is generally performed in order to evaluate ventricular function, since it may affect the choice of device therapy and…

…drug therapy. It is very common that patients with bradycardia have a strong indication for drugs that aggravate or even cause the bradycardia; in such…

…TdP will degenerate to VF, necessitating immediate defibrillation. In the context of cancer therapy, patients may develop new cardiac symptoms such as syncope, pre syncope…

…occluded infarct related artery is not recommended in stable, asymptomatic patients without severe ischaemia. Evaluation and Physical Examination The initial evaluation should be structured to…

…therapy should incorporate the clinical profile, coronary anatomy, left ventricular ejection fraction, procedural factors and anticipated outcomes. The supplied material does not describe specific physical…

…often determined by the presence and severity of underlying cardiovascular disease. Conduction disease and the need for pacemaker therapy may be more frequent in T2DM…

…change in antiretroviral therapy is not recommended in individuals with previous virological failure if it risks loss of suppression. Clinical presentation and symptoms The source…

…75 years Use in patients ≥ 75 years is generally not recommended. If deemed necessary after careful individual benefit risk assessment by the prescribing physician: Initial…

…well being. Physical inactivity is itself a major cardiovascular risk factor. Sedentary behaviour may confer risk even in individuals who achieve recommended exercise volumes; therefore…

…Calculation of hemodynamic parameters by ultrasound Hemodynamics is the study of blood flow dynamics. The physical laws that govern blood flow are fundamental in echocardiography…

Cardiology Indications for pharmacologic agents Pharmacologic stress tests are indicated in the following scenarios: Inability to exercise due to physical limitations. Contraindications to exercise, such…

…propagate through a physical medium. This medium may consist of any matter, e.g air, water, metal, or tissue and fluids in the human body…

…The first few minutes 1. Sit the patient up and minimise physical exertion. 2. Attach continuous pulse oximetry and an ECG. 3. Give oxygen in…

…competence; a physician available. Patient preparation: A light meal is permitted; no large meal, no coffee and no nicotine in the preceding 2–3 hours…

…physical activity and any other precipitating factor. Thresholds The thresholds below are used above all in diabetes. The severity of the symptoms and the patient…

…when the sinus rate is extremely low—such as less than 40 to 50 beats per minute in the first 4 to 6 hours after…

…increasing frequency of hospitalizations and visits for heart failure without disease recognition in the 3 years preceding diagnosis is also a notable red flag [8…

…and may worsen ischemia in patients with obstructive coronary disease. It is also the most prevalent antecedent of heart failure—particularly heart failure with preserved…

…physical fitness or individual health status. In particular, it cannot distinguish adipose tissue from lean mass. Waist circumference and the waist to hip ratio provide…

…Chest pain is one of the most nuanced symptoms in clinical practice and it is fundamental to be able to differentiate benign from serious etiologies…

…interchangeably both in clinical practice and in the literature. Tachyarrhythmias: causes, differential diagnoses, treatment and management Any heart rate faster than 100 beats per minute…

…parameters in detail. Symptom during exercise stress testing Perceived exertion The patient's perceived exertion is a way of estimating the intensity of the physical…

…individual variation in maximum heart rate . The standard deviation for maximum heart rate is around 10 beats per minute, which means that if the expected…

…For example, Bazett's formula is only suitable in adults with a heart rate between 60 and 90 beats per minute. Bazett's formula over…

…to augment blood flow in response to increased myocardial oxygen demand, such as during physical exertion. It is defined as the ratio of maximal coronary…

…during physical activity, but an atherosclerotic plaque may prevent oxygen supply from increasing in parallel with oxygen demands. Depending on several factors– including the severity…

…rhythm with ventricular rate 100 beats per minute. P wave with constant morphology preceding every QRS complex. The P wave is positive in lead II…

…A benzodiazepine in a sufficient and repeated dose , titrated against clinical effect. 2. Parenteral thiamine early , preferably before or at the same time as carbohydrate…

…physical restraint — ketamine provides both immobilisation and less psychological trauma than being held down by three adults. Procedure Batteries and magnets A button battery in…

…many laboratories and spirometers still use it as a benchmark. 6. A maximal inspiration back to TLC to close the flow volume loop — the in

…in whom AAA has been reported with a substantial cumulative incidence. The source material does not provide a detailed standardized physical examination protocol beyond assessment…

…interpreted in isolation. The initial diagnosis and triage depend on integration of symptoms, vital signs, the ECG, and serial cardiac troponin measurements. Evaluation and physical…

…an abrupt reduction in arterial perfusion of an upper or lower limb that causes tissue metabolic requirements to exceed available blood flow. The resulting ischaemia…

…The presence of haemodynamic instability places the patient in the high risk category and requires urgent evaluation for reperfusion treatment. Evaluation and physical examination Initial…

…the fourth Korotkoff sound is used. Office blood pressure: blood pressure measured in a clinical setting, manually or with an automated device. Home blood pressure…

…inversion can occur without coronary artery disease. Proposed explanations in the source material include cardiac memory after abnormal ventricular activation, transient rate related conduction abnormalities…

…Dizziness during exertion. Discomfort in the arm, jaw, neck, or upper back. Chest discomfort triggered by emotional stress. Palpitations associated with physical activity, a large…

…diagnosis, as the syndrome associated with ischemic heart disease is broader than chest pain itself, encompassing symptoms like tightness, pressure, and discomfort in the chest…

…symptom patterns in detail. Physical manifestations Tendinous xanthomas, particularly over extensor tendons, are characteristic clinical manifestations of untreated FH and may develop when the disorder…

…The injury is considered acute if there is a documented rise and/or fall of cTn values. However, myocardial injury alone is an entity in…