…small vessels, multivessel disease, bifurcation lesions, treatment of acute myocardial infarction Procedural and mechanical Stent underexpansion, incomplete wall apposition, residual inflow or outflow disease, edge…

…beats per minute. Note that with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2…

…reproductive and pregnancy related history. Female specific or female predominant factors associated with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of…

…type of infarction may cause pathological R wave progression. However, the specificity for pathological R wave progression is considerably lower than pathological Q waves and…

…evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia, electrocardiographic findings, cardiac biomarkers, imaging, angiography, and, occasionally, pathological examination. Pathologically, infarction represents myocardial cell death caused by prolonged ischaemia…

…and syncope may also occur [5]. Non Cardiac Causes Several non cardiac conditions can present with chest pain that requires careful differentiation from ischemic heart…

…and the underlying cause must be investigated. Pain, infections, medications, fever, hypovolemia, dehydration, anemia, hyperthyroidism and myocarditis are common etiologies. Treatment of the underlying cause…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re entry This section introduces the most common arrhythmias encountered in clinical practice, beginning…

…Other cardiovascular risk factors and relevant comorbidities Evidence of hypertension mediated organ damage Existing cardiac, cerebrovascular, or renal disease The possibility of a secondary cause…

…the volume, echogenicity and location of the effusion. Regarding the location, an effusion may be general (circumferential) or localized to a specific area. The effusion…

…The cardiovascular burden of CKD extends beyond CAD to peripheral arterial disease, cerebrovascular disease, valvular heart disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and other arrhythmias or…

…the commonest cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding, but the differential diagnosis includes oesophagitis, gastritis, a Mallory Weiss tear, a Dieulafoy lesion, angiodysplasia, malignancy and an…

…X linked or other non autosomal dominant mechanisms. Complex or multifactorial genetic architecture. The inheritance pattern affects the appropriate scope and duration of family surveillance…

…American and European guidelines assert that the ST segment must be either downsloping or horizontal. Otherwise, ischemia is unlikely to be the cause of the…

…or to resolution of the underlying cause. Contraindications Hypothermia with a body temperature below about 30 °C — the hypothermic myocardium is irritable and pacing can…

…The emergency evaluation of non traumatic chest discomfort is structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Other cardiopulmonary causes …

…is mediated by the combined effects of hyperglycaemia, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, obesity, smoking and other conventional risk factors, together with diabetes specific vascular and metabolic abnormalities…

…contraindications, and subject preparations. We will also discuss the relevance of withholding specific cardioactive medications during exercise testing (exercise ECG). Indications for exercise stress test…

…benign and the most common cause of sinus arrest/pause. It commonly affects younger individuals who endure intense emotional stress, acute pain or other stimuli…

…other vascular disease. A history of myocardial infarction or raised cholesterol among relatives. The presence of tendon xanthomas, corneal arcus and xanthelasma. Potential secondary causes…

…to treat (NNT) for the ACLS specific interventions is much higher or uncertain, meaning that the efficacy of these interventions is much lower or uncertain…

…kidney function; Excess dietary sodium and volume overload; Concomitant drugs or conditions that increase blood pressure; or An undiagnosed secondary cause of hypertension. White coat…

…is both insensitive and non specific for SCD. Most people who die suddenly never had an ejection fraction measured before death, and among those who…

…work systematically through the possible causes, apply several non pharmacological measures at the same time, and use drugs only in severe agitation or marked distress…

…features of Brugada syndrome are fairly specific to the disorder, provided that the clinical characteristics are in line with the disorder. There are however other…

…the other valves. The area is calculated by measuring the diameter of the valve ( area = π × radius 2 , where radius = diameter/2 ), and…

…used in adults aged ≥70 years. SCORE2 OP accounts for the competing risk of death from non cardiovascular causes, an important consideration in older populations…

…definition of MI. Type 1 MI is generally related to an atherothrombotic event, whereas Types 2–5 MI have other mechanisms of myocardial ischaemia and…

…Biomarkers and Laboratory Findings The source material does not provide information on biomarkers or laboratory findings specific to the evaluation of bradycardia. Treatment and Management…

…alternative etiologies are excluded by diagnostic testing or failed therapeutic trials. If alternative causes of cough are suspected, specific diagnostic pathways may be pursued. Spirometry

…Pericardial disease, including constriction Right ventricular dysfunction caused by pulmonary embolism Infiltrative cardiomyopathies, particularly cardiac amyloidosis Sepsis and other hyperdynamic states In cardiac amyloidosis, BNP…

…however, display both ECG changes and symptoms. Troponins and other biomarkers of myocardial necrosis (infarction) Myocardium can endure 20 to 30 minutes of complete ischemia…

…hypernatremia) and decreased (hyponatremia) sodium levels do not have any effect on the ECG, nor cardiac rhythm, or impulse conduction. 2. Calcium Hypercalcemia Causes of…

…of water [3]. Severity of DKA The classification helps in choosing the level of care. The clinical state, the circulation, comorbidity and the precipitating cause…

…the more myocardium can be salvaged. Call the PCI service in parallel with drug treatment and transport planning [1,5]. Symptom duration Under 12 hours…

…of product characteristics: Lederspan specifies 10–20 mg periarticularly in bursitis, tendinitis, tenosynovitis and epicondylitis, and Depo Medrol 4–30 mg into a bursa and…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Lathundar ECG Criteria for ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI) The diagnosis of STEMI relies on specific electrocardiographic thresholds for ST…

…in the context of the clinical presentation and other findings. A reduced CFR may occur with angiographically insignificant epicardial disease because of abnormalities in the…

…obstruction of the bowel or the urinary tract. Marked bradycardia, sick sinus syndrome or high grade AV block without pacemaker protection. Asthma and other marked…

…low density lipoprotein (VLDL) Chylomicrons and other triglyceride rich particles Thus, non HDL C provides a broader estimate of atherogenic cholesterol than LDL C alone…

…evaluation of patients receiving digoxin reveals specific electrophysiologic profiles. Digoxin's autonomic actions largely slow the sinus node discharge rate, shorten atrial refractoriness, and prolong…

…have specific contraindications: Adenosine, Dipyridamole, Regadenoson : Should be avoided in patients with active bronchospasm, severe hypotension, or high degree AV block. Caffeine and other methylxanthines…

…increases the quality of the examination, and allows for standardized comparisons of serial examinations. If pathology is discovered during the standard examination, other examinations (which…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…intraluminal mass and lesion haziness raise suspicion of thrombus, although haziness is not specific. Intravascular imaging can identify plaque disruption, thrombus and other structural features…

…provide a specific examination profile or diagnostic physical signs for LMCAD. Diagnostic Assessment Coronary angiography Invasive coronary angiography defines: The presence and severity of left…

…loss of organized atrial systole. Transesophageal echocardiography and surgical pathology demonstrate that over 90% of thrombi in non valvular AF originate within this specific anatomical…

…of supraventricular tachycardias (SVTs), usually within 30 seconds. Doses higher than 18 mg are unlikely to revert a tachycardia and should not be used. Specific…

…highlighting specific segments of the left ventricle that demonstrate abnormalities. These tools compare perfusion data to population based reference databases, often adjusted for sex and…

…develop during acute management. AF is often haemodynamically tolerated and may require no specific acute therapy beyond appropriate anticoagulation and management of ventricular rate. However…

…set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood gas determines the need for…

Info Table 1 provides a summary of the indications, contraindications, dosage, administration, warnings, precautions, and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary…

…reflects the concentration of circulating atherogenic particles because each apoB containing particle carries one apoB molecule. LDL C, non HDL C and apoB are usually…

…is insufficient oxygen available. Insufficient oxygen supply results in diminished ATP production and subsequently disruption of cellular metabolism. In case of ischemia, cardiac myocytes protect…

Procedurer Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is the commonest cause of vertigo in primary care and one of the few diagnoses that can be cured on…

…Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit platelet function and enhance the effect of anticoagulants, increasing bleeding risk. Monitor coagulation…

…disease, aspirin reduced the combined incidence of non fatal MI, non fatal ischaemic stroke, and vascular death from 8.2% to 6.7% per year…

…Nevertheless, the clinical importance of non fatal gastrointestinal and intracranial haemorrhage is substantial, particularly because the absolute cardiovascular benefit is small in many primary prevention…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…three main questions discussed in media, blogs and on social plattforms: Is high cholesterol a true cause of coronary artery disease? Does diet affect cholesterol…