…sufficiently will result in the following compilations: Pulmonary edema develops due to rising LAP and LVEDP. Cardiogenic shock develops if the cardiac output is insufficient…

…cautiously further over the following 24 to 48 hours [3,4,6]. This is a general principle, not a universal target. Chronic hypertension shifts autoregulation…

…pressure levels that might otherwise be considered only moderately elevated. The syndrome can produce widespread maternal complications, including pulmonary oedema, renal insufficiency, hepatic injury, thrombocytopenia…

…associated with advanced age, smoking, coronary artery disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, renal insufficiency, systemic hypertension, and concomitant abdominal aortic aneurysm. Clinical Presentation and Symptoms…

…Respiratory conditions : Tension pneumothorax Drowning Airway obstruction Hanging Pneumonia High altitude sickness Aspiration Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Bronchospasm (asthma) Other : Coma Central hypoventilation syndromes…

…oxygen. Acute on chronic hypercapnic failure in obesity hypoventilation and neuromuscular disease. Hypercapnic failure in cardiogenic pulmonary oedema that does not improve with CPAP alone…

…most common risk factor for PH. It produces postcapillary PH through elevation of left atrial and pulmonary venous pressure. In some patients, chronic postcapillary pr

…of life. The underlying aetiology is heterogeneous. Chronic heart failure evaluation should therefore seek reversible or treatable causes. The source material identifies coronary disease, hypertension…

…surgery, hypercoagulability, and pregnancy are common risk factors (see Risk factors below). A significant proportion of cases with pulmonary embolism require thrombolysis to dissolve the…

…vein thrombosis 3 Pulmonary embolism is the most likely diagnosis 3 Heart rate 100/min 1.5 Immobilisation ≥ 3 days or surgery in the last…

…increases cardiac output, and lowers pulmonary artery pressure without increasing myocardial oxygen consumption. The inotropic effect of levosimendan is not affected by the concurrent use…

CPR It is commonly stated that approximately 80% of all cardiac arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being…

Echocardiography Constrictive pericarditis: the end stage of pericardial inflammation Constrictive pericarditis is the result of chronic inflammation of the pericardium. In principle, all causes of…

…risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hay fever, or nasal polyps (increased risk of hypersensitivity…

…Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) : Indicates systemic atherosclerosis. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) : Associated with higher perioperative risk. Clinical Applications Personalized Decision Making : SYNTAX Score II…

…2), obesity, smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Moreover, certain other tachyarrhythmias predispose to developing atrial fibrillation: atrial flutter, AVNRT and…

…Pneumonia, heart failure, pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax and acute coronary syndrome must be actively considered [1]. Do the following early: 1. Assess airway, work of breathing…

…Pneumothorax 1 month after resolution Pulmonary embolism, until anticoagulated and stable An individual assessment Eye, ear, abdominal or thoracic surgery 1 month Neurosurgery or an…

…closure in ASD/VSD. Serial measurements track shunt progression in chronic conditions. Post Intervention Monitoring : Assess residual shunts after device closure or surgery. Differentiating Pathologies …

…Cardiac causes Systemic causes Heart failure Sepsis Myocarditis Chronic kidney disease Cardiomyopathy Stroke or subarachnoid haemorrhage Takotsubo syndrome Pulmonary embolism Recent coronary revascularization Infiltrative disease…

…Normal in newborns. Right ventricular hypertrophy. Acute cor pulmonale (pulmonary embolism). Chronic cor pulmonale (COPD, pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary valve stenosis). Lateral ventricular infarction. Pre excitation…

…HF), acute Heart failure (HF), chronic Bradycardia (second line alternative) Medium dose : 3.0 10.0 μg/kg/min. + ++++ + +++++ Medium dose dopamine activates β1…

…particularly useful when symptoms suggest HF but the diagnosis remains uncertain. Acute HF generally produces higher BNP and NT proBNP concentrations than chronic, stable disease…

…collateral circulation. A first or anterior infarction. Single vessel disease without collateral support. Chronic kidney disease, particularly in relation to VSR. Large infarction, especially for…

…LV) filling pressures, defined invasively as a pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) ≥15 mmHg at rest or ≥25 mmHg during exercise [4] . This hemodynamic criterion…

…HF), acute Heart failure (HF), chronic Bradycardia (second line alternative) Medium dose : 3.0 10.0 μg/kg/min. + ++++ + +++++ Medium dose dopamine activates β1…

…the pulmonary circulation and cause pulmonary edema. Also, left ventricular exhaustion results in diminished cardiac output, potential hypotension and cardiogenic shock. Chronic mitral regurgitation Chronic…

…be taken at the next regular time. Use with caution in patients with asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Dyspnea has been reported in patients…

…Normal in newborns. Right ventricular hypertrophy. Acute cor pulmonale (pulmonary embolism). Chronic cor pulmonale (COPD, pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary valve stenosis). Lateral ventricular infarction. Pre excitation…

…if tolerated 70–79 Diabetes 120–130 70–79 Chronic kidney disease 130–139 70–79 Avoid a systolic pressure < 120 mmHg and a…

…diastolic reserve becomes evident, with a rise in left atrial and pulmonary pressures that contributes to exertional breathlessness and reduced exercise capacity. Multiorgan and comorbidity…

…of all major peripheral pulses. Blood pressure measurement in both arms. Cardiac auscultation. Pulmonary auscultation. Evaluation for heart failure. Assessment for circulatory compromise, haemodynamic instability…

…holds true for cardiac arrests caused by chronic or acute ischemic heart disease, it is often not true in other circumstances (e.g. pulmonary embolism…

…state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary disease can progress or destabilize abruptly, leading to an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Clinical…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a complete or nearly complete coronary arterial obstruction that has persisted for…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an…

Cardiology Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

ECG Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…

…ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and therapeutic objectives Antianginal therapy in chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) is directed primarily at reducing myocardial ischaemia and relieving…

…be selected according to clinical judgement. Low to moderate probability: greater than 5% to 50% in the chronic coronary syndrome pathway. Coronary CT angiography (CCTA…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Refractory angina is a chronic syndrome of persistent ischaemic symptoms despite the exhaustion of conventional therapeutic options…

…correction of chronic hyponatraemia carries a risk of demyelination [5]. The severity of the symptoms governs the emergency treatment Severe symptoms The following symptoms indicate…

…Staging of chronic kidney disease Stage eGFR Description : : : G1 ≥ 90 Normal or high G2 60–89 Mildly reduced G3a 45–59 Mildly to moderately reduced…

…therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and post myocardial…

…heart failure, and chronic kidney disease (CKD). These agents interfere with the renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for the conversion…

…extensive MI with necrosis and scar formation Diffuse myocardial fibrosis Reversible ischemic dysfunction Chronic hypoperfusion with hibernating myocardium Post ischemic stunning Adverse left ventricular (LV…

…component of cardiovascular prevention, particularly in patients with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and acute coronary syndromes…

…acute when serial measurements demonstrate a rise and/or fall. A stable elevation indicates chronic myocardial injury . Myocardial injury is not synonymous with myocardial infarction…

…It is uncommon for chronic pericardial effusions to cause sudden cardiac arrest since these cases tend to be recognized and managed before circulatory collapse occurs…

…3 IV Pneumonia, in chronic lung disease amoxicillin 750 mg × 3 PO 5–7 days or benzylpenicillin 3 g × 4 IV Pneumonia, suspected atypical pathogen…

…Comment : : : MAP ≥ 65 mmHg 80–85 mmHg in chronic hypertension or when there are signs of inadequate perfusion Urine output 0.5 mL/kg/h…

…ulcers; everything else is supportive. But the same compression applied to a limb with arterial insufficiency can cause necrosis and, in the worst case, amputation…

…for pain). An opioid is rarely the right choice in nociplastic or neuropathic pain, in chronic non cancer pain, or in headache. A failure to…

…Indications Acute urinary retention. Chronic urinary retention with renal impairment or a large residual volume. A need for accurate measurement of urine output in a…

…1.73 m². Advantages of MDRD eGFR Clinical utility: The MDRD equation has been instrumental in identifying and staging chronic kidney disease (CKD), facilitating early…

…including the number of lesions, their location, and specific characteristics such as bifurcations, chronic total occlusions (CTOs), calcification, and thrombus presence. These factors are weighted…