…coronary cause of symptoms. CCS is a clinical syndrome rather than a permanently stable state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary…

…The resulting haemodynamic congestion produces a characteristic clinical phenotype of breathlessness, fatigue and oedema. This definition does not depend on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

…chronic angina, an anginal equivalent or exertional dyspnoea. Patients may continue to have lifestyle limiting symptoms despite guideline directed medical therapy (GDMT), prompting consideration of…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…Chronic, low grade systemic inflammation Insulin resistance Abnormal adipokine signalling Endothelial dysfunction Dyslipidaemia A prothrombotic state Albuminuria and declining estimated glomerular filtration rate Development of…

…guidelines. Hence, this chapter will present the most recent evidence and recommendations for the evaluation and treatment of chronic coronary syndromes (CCS). Ischemic heart disease…

…atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by the subendothelial accumulation of apolipoprotein B containing…

…guidelines. Hence, this chapter will present the most recent evidence and recommendations for the evaluation and treatment of chronic coronary syndromes (CCS). Ischemic heart disease…

…blood pressure, left ventricular dysfunction, contraindications, or intolerance limit escalation of beta blocker or CCB therapy. Nicorandil and trimetazidine are additional options in selected patients…

…or chronic chest pain attributable to suspected chronic coronary syndrome, is evaluated by estimating the likelihood of obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) before diagnostic testing…

…severe preeclamptic phenotype or variant. Pathophysiology The precise mechanism of preeclampsia remains incompletely established. Proposed contributors include chronic uteroplacental ischaemia, an exaggerated maternal inflammatory response…

…because quality of life is often poor, hospitalizations are frequent, and healthcare resource utilization is high. Clinical Presentation and Symptoms The dominant manifestation is chronic…

…normally, there is more room for the right ventricle, the filling of which increases and the septum bulges into the left ventricle. During exhalation, the…

CPR It is commonly stated that approximately 80% of all cardiac arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being…

…how acute the condition is. A patient with a chronic plasma sodium of 112 mmol/L may be relatively unaffected, while a rapid fall from…

…Staging of chronic kidney disease Stage eGFR Description : : : G1 ≥ 90 Normal or high G2 60–89 Mildly reduced G3a 45–59 Mildly to moderately reduced…

…ACE) inhibitors are foundational therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction …

…Definition and Pathophysiology Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) constitute a cornerstone in the management of cardiovascular disease, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease (CKD)…

…Reversible ischemic dysfunction Chronic hypoperfusion with hibernating myocardium Post ischemic stunning Adverse left ventricular (LV) remodeling Ischemic cardiomyopathy is the leading cause of heart failure…

…chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Its principal therapeutic objective is reduction of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL…

…acute when serial measurements demonstrate a rise and/or fall. A stable elevation indicates chronic myocardial injury . Myocardial injury is not synonymous with myocardial infarction…

…most common risk factor for PH. It produces postcapillary PH through elevation of left atrial and pulmonary venous pressure. In some patients, chronic postcapillary pr

…chronic pericardial effusions to cause sudden cardiac arrest since these cases tend to be recognized and managed before circulatory collapse occurs. The leading causes of…

…of Cardiogenic Shock. N Engl J Med 2021; 385:516 525 Indications Severe left ventricular failure, acute or chronic. Severe biventricular failure, acute or chronic…

…NIV are two different treatments with different physiology, and the commonest source of error is confusing them. CPAP delivers a constant pressure that recruits alveoli…

…applies where you work. They assume normal renal and hepatic function, a non pregnant adult of normal weight, and individual assessment. See the separate quick…

…Comment : : : MAP ≥ 65 mmHg 80–85 mmHg in chronic hypertension or when there are signs of inadequate perfusion Urine output 0.5 mL/kg/h…

…4. Culture only in the presence of clinical signs of infection — all chronic wounds are colonised, and a culture taken without clinical suspicion leads only…

…is given. The serious incidents almost always arise when the principle of titration is abandoned — when a fixed dose is given without assessment, when a…

…coach actively, and do not accept a trace you would not be prepared to show a colleague. Indications Investigation of chronic cough, dyspnoea, wheeze or…

…catheter is not easier to pass. With a difficult passage it is the shape of the tip and the technique that matter, not the calibre…

…risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hay fever, or nasal polyps (increased risk of hypersensitivity…

…identifying and staging chronic kidney disease (CKD), facilitating early intervention and management. Standardization: Its widespread adoption has led to standardized reporting of eGFR in clinical…

…with ECG, central vein catheter and intra arterial catheter (A line) is warranted. Overview of vasopressors and inotropes Inotropes and vasopressors. Table 1. Drug manual…

…or left main coronary artery disease . It integrates multiple variables, including the number of lesions, their location, and specific characteristics such as bifurcations, chronic total…

…of long term outcomes after revascularization. It incorporates both anatomical (from the original SYNTAX Score) and clinical variables (e.g., age, sex, renal function, left…

…the time of assessment. Ongoing chest discomfort with electrical or haemodynamic instability. Cardiac arrest or cardiogenic shock. Features that favour ACS rather than chronic stable…

…after PCI; reduce recurrent atherothrombotic events in chronic coronary disease; preserve the benefit of coronary intervention while limiting major and clinically relevant bleeding. Long term…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

…with stable or chronic atherosclerotic coronary disease, many of whom have a previous acute coronary syndrome. The available evidence supports consideration of low dose colchicine…

…objective, particularly in patients with left ventricular dysfunction and/or MVD. Nevertheless, the optimal extent and timing of intervention depend on the clinical setting, haemodynamic…

…with normal renal function, the occurrence of contrast induced AKI is negligible or very low. Risk rises substantially with chronic kidney disease, particularly diabetic kidney…

…whether ACS or chronic coronary syndrome (CCS). Whether and how PCI was performed. The need for non cardiac surgery. The presence of an indication for…

…in the chronic coronary syndrome lipid lowering recommendations. Acute coronary syndrome The period immediately following ACS is associated with particularly high risk of recurrent cardiovascular…

…elevation without evidence of ischaemia represents acute myocardial injury rather than MI. Persistent elevation without a significant dynamic change is consistent with chronic myocardial injury…

…angina caused by disease in the treated segment. The clinical implications range from asymptomatic angiographic disease to chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), acute coronary syndrome (ACS)…

…chronic kidney disease (CKD), and peripheral artery disease (PAD). Figure 1 (below) shows weight loss effects of novel multi agonists in recent clinical trials (Rawshani…

…In chronic coronary syndrome, the recommended LDL C objective is: LDL C <1.4 mmol/L (<55 mg/dL) , and A reduction of at least…

…or progress to chronic limb threatening ischaemia (CLTI). Clinical presentation and symptoms Asymptomatic and atypical disease Fewer than half of patients with PAD have typical…

…Hypertension. Absence of an adequate collateral circulation. A first or anterior infarction. Single vessel disease without collateral support. Chronic kidney disease, particularly in relation to…

…coronary syndrome Reinfarction reduced by approximately 30–40%; death reduced by approximately 35–45% Peripheral artery disease Lower risk of progression to chronic limb threat

…should therefore prompt consideration of systemic arteriopathy rather than being regarded solely as an isolated coronary event. SCAD predominantly affects the left sided coronary circulation…

…and degree of myocardial involvement The anatomical territory, including anterior, inferoposterolateral or right ventricular involvement Pre existing abnormalities such as prior infarction, left bundle branch…

…Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Myocardial infarction (MI) is a clinical diagnosis that integrates myocardial injury, evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia, electrocardiographic findings…

…consequences of diabetes may present through any major cardiovascular phenotype: CAD, including chronic coronary syndromes and acute coronary syndromes HF across the spectrum of left…

…of the left ventricle. Cardiac remodeling Ventricular dilatation and hypertrophy lead to myocardial remodeling and neurohormonal changes that further worsen the hemodynamic situation. Thus, chronic…

…with individuals without atrial fibrillation. The increased risk of stroke is explained by formation of thrombi in the left atrial appendage . Such thrombi may leave…

…Paroxysmal atrial flutter. Chronic atrial flutter. The observant will notice that the classification differs slightly from that of atrial fibrillation. Acute and paroxysmal cases are…