…cause of symptoms. CCS is a clinical syndrome rather than a permanently stable state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary disease…

…quality of life. The underlying aetiology is heterogeneous. Chronic heart failure evaluation should therefore seek reversible or treatable causes. The source material identifies coronary disease…

Cardiology Nephrology Definition and pathophysiology Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined by abnormalities of renal structure or function that persist for more than 3 months…

…chronic angina, an anginal equivalent or exertional dyspnoea. Patients may continue to have lifestyle limiting symptoms despite guideline directed medical therapy (GDMT), prompting consideration of…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an important cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD…

…by increasing the level of exertion ( i.e increasing the myocardial load), and vice versa . Stable angina pectoris is a chronic and mostly progressive disease…

…atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by the subendothelial accumulation of apolipoprotein B containing…

…by increasing the level of exertion ( i.e increasing the myocardial load), and vice versa . Stable angina pectoris is a chronic and mostly progressive disease…

…patients. Treatment choices should be integrated with management of precipitating factors such as anaemia, uncontrolled hypertension, thyrotoxicosis, tachyarrhythmia, uncontrolled heart failure, and concomitant valvular disease…

…or chronic chest pain attributable to suspected chronic coronary syndrome, is evaluated by estimating the likelihood of obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) before diagnostic testing…

…severe preeclamptic phenotype or variant. Pathophysiology The precise mechanism of preeclampsia remains incompletely established. Proposed contributors include chronic uteroplacental ischaemia, an exaggerated maternal inflammatory response…

…24% of patients with CAD. The pathophysiology of refractory angina is heterogeneous. In obstructive CAD, symptoms may result from extensive or diffuse epicardial disease, chronic…

…often chronic, but in some cases, the condition may be transient. Pericardiotomy can be curative, which is why it is important to detect the disease…

CPR It is commonly stated that approximately 80% of all cardiac arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being…

…how acute the condition is. A patient with a chronic plasma sodium of 112 mmol/L may be relatively unaffected, while a rapid fall from…

…Staging of chronic kidney disease Stage eGFR Description : : : G1 ≥ 90 Normal or high G2 60–89 Mildly reduced G3a 45–59 Mildly to moderately reduced…

…ACE) inhibitors are foundational therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction …

…Definition and Pathophysiology Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) constitute a cornerstone in the management of cardiovascular disease, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease (CKD)…

…Reversible ischemic dysfunction Chronic hypoperfusion with hibernating myocardium Post ischemic stunning Adverse left ventricular (LV) remodeling Ischemic cardiomyopathy is the leading cause of heart failure…

…atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Its principal therapeutic objective is reduction of low…

…acute when serial measurements demonstrate a rise and/or fall. A stable elevation indicates chronic myocardial injury . Myocardial injury is not synonymous with myocardial infarction…

…hypertension (CTEPH) and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary disease Group 5: PH with unclear or multifactorial mechanisms PAH is a distinct and uncommon form of precapillary PH…

…chronic pericardial effusions to cause sudden cardiac arrest since these cases tend to be recognized and managed before circulatory collapse occurs. The leading causes of…

…concurrent use of beta blockers. The vasodilating effect reduces preload and afterload, further reducing myocardial workload. Levosimendan is used in severe acute or chronic heart…

…steroids and controlled oxygen. Acute on chronic hypercapnic failure in obesity hypoventilation and neuromuscular disease. Hypercapnic failure in cardiogenic pulmonary oedema that does not improve…

…3 IV Pneumonia, in chronic lung disease amoxicillin 750 mg × 3 PO 5–7 days or benzylpenicillin 3 g × 4 IV Pneumonia, suspected atypical pathogen…

…Comment : : : MAP ≥ 65 mmHg 80–85 mmHg in chronic hypertension or when there are signs of inadequate perfusion Urine output 0.5 mL/kg/h…

…4. Culture only in the presence of clinical signs of infection — all chronic wounds are colonised, and a culture taken without clinical suspicion leads only…

…is given. The serious incidents almost always arise when the principle of titration is abandoned — when a fixed dose is given without assessment, when a…

…coach actively, and do not accept a trace you would not be prepared to show a colleague. Indications Investigation of chronic cough, dyspnoea, wheeze or…

…retention. Chronic urinary retention with renal impairment or a large residual volume. A need for accurate measurement of urine output in a critically ill patient…

…kidney or liver disease, especially when combined with diuretics (risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease…

…identifying and staging chronic kidney disease (CKD), facilitating early intervention and management. Standardization: Its widespread adoption has led to standardized reporting of eGFR in clinical…

…with ECG, central vein catheter and intra arterial catheter (A line) is warranted. Overview of vasopressors and inotropes Inotropes and vasopressors. Table 1. Drug manual…

…disease or left main coronary artery disease . It integrates multiple variables, including the number of lesions, their location, and specific characteristics such as bifurcations, chronic…

…Unprotected Left Main Disease : Increases complexity and risk. Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) : Indicates systemic atherosclerosis. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) : Associated with higher perioperative risk…

…when serial troponin values show a dynamic change, or chronic, when troponin elevation persists without such a change. Myocarditis, sepsis, takotsubo cardiomyopathy, valvular disease, arrhythmias…

…after PCI; reduce recurrent atherothrombotic events in chronic coronary disease; preserve the benefit of coronary intervention while limiting major and clinically relevant bleeding. Long term…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

…with stable or chronic atherosclerotic coronary disease, many of whom have a previous acute coronary syndrome. The available evidence supports consideration of low dose colchicine…

…importance of residual disease is also influenced by anatomic complexity and comorbidity, which themselves may contribute to progression of native coronary artery disease. The chronic…

…the occurrence of contrast induced AKI is negligible or very low. Risk rises substantially with chronic kidney disease, particularly diabetic kidney disease and advanced CKD…

…whether ACS or chronic coronary syndrome (CCS). Whether and how PCI was performed. The need for non cardiac surgery. The presence of an indication for…

…High intensity statin therapy remains the foundation of lipid lowering treatment for patients with chronic coronary syndrome, acute coronary syndrome (ACS), atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease…

…with chronic myocardial injury. Non ischaemic conditions, including myocarditis, rapid ventricular rate atrial fibrillation, marked anaemia, hypertensive emergency, heart failure, and end stage renal disease…

…stent disease is driven predominantly by tissue accumulation within the stented segment rather than by negative remodelling. Pathophysiology Neointimal hyperplasia The principal mechanism of ISR…

…chronic kidney disease (CKD), and peripheral artery disease (PAD). Figure 1 (below) shows weight loss effects of novel multi agonists in recent clinical trials (Rawshani…

…In chronic coronary syndrome, the recommended LDL C objective is: LDL C <1.4 mmol/L (<55 mg/dL) , and A reduction of at least…

…the presence of multilevel disease and collateral circulation. Flow limitation may be clinically silent, manifest as exertional symptoms, or progress to chronic limb threatening ischaemia…

…Hypertension. Absence of an adequate collateral circulation. A first or anterior infarction. Single vessel disease without collateral support. Chronic kidney disease, particularly in relation to…

…coronary syndrome Reinfarction reduced by approximately 30–40%; death reduced by approximately 35–45% Peripheral artery disease Lower risk of progression to chronic limb threat

…by separation within the coronary arterial wall, usually through formation of an intramural haematoma that compresses the true lumen. The resulting reduction in coronary blood…

…restoration of epicardial flow. The electrocardiographic appearance depends on several interacting factors: The stage of the ischaemic process: acute, evolving or chronic The severity of…

…Cardiac causes Systemic causes Heart failure Sepsis Myocarditis Chronic kidney disease Cardiomyopathy Stroke or subarachnoid haemorrhage Takotsubo syndrome Pulmonary embolism Recent coronary revascularization Infiltrative disease…

…aortic disease, and peripheral artery disease (PAD). Diabetes also substantially increases the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD), which itself promotes cardiovascular disease and amplifies…

…in the left ventricle and left atrium. Chronic aortic regurgitation leads to dilatation and hypertrophy of the left ventricle. Cardiac remodeling Ventricular dilatation and hypertrophy…

…arrhythmia with low risk of recurrence. Atrial fibrillation in other circumstances (particularly those listed above) is usually a progressive disease. Complications of atrial fibrillation and…

…Paroxysmal atrial flutter. Chronic atrial flutter. The observant will notice that the classification differs slightly from that of atrial fibrillation. Acute and paroxysmal cases are…