…smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Moreover, certain other tachyarrhythmias predispose to developing atrial fibrillation: atrial flutter, AVNRT and AVRT (pre…

…diagnosed cases). Paroxysmal atrial flutter. Chronic atrial flutter. The observant will notice that the classification differs slightly from that of atrial fibrillation. Acute and paroxysmal…

…cerebrovascular disease, valvular heart disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and other arrhythmias or conduction abnormalities. CKD also worsens the prognosis of established CVD. Mechanisms linking…

…paid to potentially reversible causes and associated cardiovascular conditions, including coronary syndromes, valvular disease, atrial fibrillation, ventricular arrhythmias, conduction disease and hypertension. Non cardiovascular contributors

…atherosclerosis, heart failure (HF), atrial fibrillation and cardiovascular events. In clinical practice, obesity is conventionally defined by a body mass index (BMI) of ≥30 kg…

…failure (HF), atrial fibrillation (AF), aortic disease, and peripheral artery disease (PAD). Diabetes also substantially increases the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD), which itself…

…MI. Persistent elevation without a significant dynamic change is consistent with chronic myocardial injury. Non ischaemic conditions, including myocarditis, rapid ventricular rate atrial fibrillation, marked…

…AND EMBOLIC POTENTIAL HIGH EMBOLIC POTENTIAL Atrial arrhythmias — especially atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. Ischemic heart disease Both acute and chronic ischemic heart disease (including…

…myocardial infarction may coexist with adverse effects on stroke, heart failure, cardiovascular mortality and atrial fibrillation. Consequently, alcohol should not be initiated as a cardiovascular…

…effective only when the patient is in sinus rhythm. Its role in atrial fibrillation remains uncertain, although it may have a rate reducing effect in…

…Older age, female sex, atrial fibrillation (AF), chronic kidney disease (CKD), and multiple non cardiovascular conditions are frequent features. A proposed disease pathway involves systemic…

…min produce vasoconstriction, which predominates at doses 15 μg/kg/min. Tachycardia. An increased ventricular rate in atrial fibrillation. Ventricular arrhythmias. Myocardial ischaemia. Hypertension …

…without antiphospholipid syndrome. The doses in venous thromboembolism include an initial high dose phase and differ from the doses used in atrial fibrillation. Follow the…

…Hypertension, diabetes, atrial fibrillation, and age related changes in left ventricular filling contribute to susceptibility. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction is regarded as a…

…optimal neurohormonal blockade and adequate volume control. It is also utilized for ventricular rate control in atrial fibrillation, particularly when other therapeutic options cannot be…

…myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation and peripheral artery disease. Prognosis is generally worse when diabetes coexists with these conditions. However, the cardiovascular effects…

…obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease (CKD), sedentary lifestyle, and atrial fibrillation (AF) [5] . Unlike HFrEF, where epicardial ischemic heart disease and myocardial…

…atrial fibrillation. Bradycardia in atrial fibrillation (bradycardia–tachycardia syndrome) Individuals with sick sinus syndrome (sinus node dysfunction) are at high risk of developing atrial fibrillation…

Echocardiography Constrictive pericarditis: the end stage of pericardial inflammation Constrictive pericarditis is the result of chronic inflammation of the pericardium. In principle, all causes of…

…Qs). This measurement is pivotal in diagnosing and managing congenital or acquired cardiac shunts, such as atrial septal defects (ASD), ventricular septal defects (VSD), and…

…systolic dysfunction. Levels may also rise with: Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction Valvular heart disease Pulmonary hypertension Ischaemic heart disease Atrial arrhythmias Pericardial disease, including constriction…

…most common risk factor for PH. It produces postcapillary PH through elevation of left atrial and pulmonary venous pressure. In some patients, chronic postcapillary pr

…the left ventricle. The rapid onset results in a sudden increase in LVEDP (left ventricular end diastolic pressure) and LAP (left atrial pressure). The left…

…HF), acute Heart failure (HF), chronic Bradycardia (second line alternative) Medium dose : 3.0 10.0 μg/kg/min. + ++++ + +++++ Medium dose dopamine activates β1…

…HF), acute Heart failure (HF), chronic Bradycardia (second line alternative) Medium dose : 3.0 10.0 μg/kg/min. + ++++ + +++++ Medium dose dopamine activates β1…

…supply from one coronary artery (Coronary arteries). Chronic myocardial ischemia may also lead to left ventricular dilation, which is referred to as ischemic cardiomyopathy (Dilated…

…It is uncommon for chronic pericardial effusions to cause sudden cardiac arrest since these cases tend to be recognized and managed before circulatory collapse occurs…

…Post cardiac surgery (hemorrhagic pericarditis). Symptoms of acute pericarditis/myocarditis There are two forms of pericarditis: acute and chronic. This article will focus on the…

…state. Patients may remain stable for prolonged periods, but chronic coronary disease can progress or destabilize abruptly, leading to an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Clinical…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a complete or nearly complete coronary arterial obstruction that has persisted for…

Cardiology Coronary Atherosclerosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly complex lipid driven inflammatory disease of the arterial intima that serves as the fundamental…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

Cardiology Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…

Introduction to Coronary Atherosclerosis, Plaques, Atherothrombosis Coronary atherosclerosis is a chronic, progressive, and highly dynamic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall. It is characterized by…

ECG Evaluation and management of stable coronary artery disease Chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) Stable coronary artery disease (CAD), frequently referred to as stable angina pectoris…

…ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and therapeutic objectives Antianginal therapy in chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) is directed primarily at reducing myocardial ischaemia and relieving…

…be selected according to clinical judgement. Low to moderate probability: greater than 5% to 50% in the chronic coronary syndrome pathway. Coronary CT angiography (CCTA…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Definition and clinical classification Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy comprise chronic or pre existing hypertension, gestational hypertension, and preeclampsia. Collectively, they affect approximately…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Refractory angina is a chronic syndrome of persistent ischaemic symptoms despite the exhaustion of conventional therapeutic options…

CPR It is commonly stated that approximately 80% of all cardiac arrests are caused by acute or chronic coronary artery disease, with the latter being…

…how acute the condition is. A patient with a chronic plasma sodium of 112 mmol/L may be relatively unaffected, while a rapid fall from…

…Staging of chronic kidney disease Stage eGFR Description : : : G1 ≥ 90 Normal or high G2 60–89 Mildly reduced G3a 45–59 Mildly to moderately reduced…

…therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and post myocardial…

…heart failure, and chronic kidney disease (CKD). These agents interfere with the renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for the conversion…

…extensive MI with necrosis and scar formation Diffuse myocardial fibrosis Reversible ischemic dysfunction Chronic hypoperfusion with hibernating myocardium Post ischemic stunning Adverse left ventricular (LV…

…component of cardiovascular prevention, particularly in patients with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), chronic coronary syndrome (CCS), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and acute coronary syndromes…

…acute when serial measurements demonstrate a rise and/or fall. A stable elevation indicates chronic myocardial injury . Myocardial injury is not synonymous with myocardial infarction…

…further reducing myocardial workload. Levosimendan is used in severe acute or chronic heart failure. Consider urgent angiography in patients with unknown etiology for acute severe…

…steroids and controlled oxygen. Acute on chronic hypercapnic failure in obesity hypoventilation and neuromuscular disease. Hypercapnic failure in cardiogenic pulmonary oedema that does not improve…

…3 IV Pneumonia, in chronic lung disease amoxicillin 750 mg × 3 PO 5–7 days or benzylpenicillin 3 g × 4 IV Pneumonia, suspected atypical pathogen…

…Comment : : : MAP ≥ 65 mmHg 80–85 mmHg in chronic hypertension or when there are signs of inadequate perfusion Urine output 0.5 mL/kg/h…

…ankle brachial index before the first bandage is applied . Indications Venous leg ulcer — about 70% of all leg ulcers. Chronic venous oedema, lipodermatosclerosis, stasis dermatitis…

…for pain). An opioid is rarely the right choice in nociplastic or neuropathic pain, in chronic non cancer pain, or in headache. A failure to…

…coach actively, and do not accept a trace you would not be prepared to show a colleague. Indications Investigation of chronic cough, dyspnoea, wheeze or…

…Indications Acute urinary retention. Chronic urinary retention with renal impairment or a large residual volume. A need for accurate measurement of urine output in a…

…risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hay fever, or nasal polyps (increased risk of hypersensitivity…

…1.73 m². Advantages of MDRD eGFR Clinical utility: The MDRD equation has been instrumental in identifying and staging chronic kidney disease (CKD), facilitating early…

…including the number of lesions, their location, and specific characteristics such as bifurcations, chronic total occlusions (CTOs), calcification, and thrombus presence. These factors are weighted…

…Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) : Indicates systemic atherosclerosis. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) : Associated with higher perioperative risk. Clinical Applications Personalized Decision Making : SYNTAX Score II…

…infarction. It may be acute, when serial troponin values show a dynamic change, or chronic, when troponin elevation persists without such a change. Myocarditis, sepsis…