…in myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) is based on principles similar to those used in echocardiography. The 17 segment model of the left ventricle serves as…

…Such a block in the left bundle branch is simply referred to as left bundle branch block. The consequence of left bundle branch block is…

…pallor paraesthesiae Neuroglycopenic symptoms An inadequate supply of glucose to the brain can cause: difficulty concentrating irritability or abnormal behaviour slurred speech visual disturbance confusion…

…In clinical practice, obesity is conventionally defined by a body mass index (BMI) of ≥30 kg/m2. Severe obesity is generally defined as BMI ≥35…

…The magnitude of ST segment deviation is measured as the height difference (in millimeters) between the J point and the PR segment. Refer to Figure…

…however, and an abnormal result is not specific to delirium. Symptoms are often worse in the evening and at night, but diurnal variation is not…

…plasma potassium level and ECG changes, as well as the risk of arrhythmia. Therefore the ECG may be used to estimate the severity of hyperkalemia…

…in which abnormal plasma cells produce misfolded immunoglobulin light chains [8, 19]. Light chains are directly toxic to cardiomyocytes, inducing the elaboration of high levels…

…unexplained weakness, or a combination of these symptoms. The diagnosis requires elevated levels of cardiac troponins. In addition to elevated troponins, the patient must display…

…higher long term and in hospital mortality rates, as well as lower ejection fractions and higher peak biomarker levels, compared to those without such conduction…

…none of the ECG changes or arrhythmias are unique to digoxin. One should always suspect digoxin as the trigger of an arrhythmia (in patients using…

…adult Abnormal relaxation (grade 1 dysfunction) Pseudonormal (grade 2 dysfunction) Reversible restrictive filling (grade 3 dysfunction) Irreversible restrictive filling (grade 4 dysfunction) E/A ratio…

…pressure gradient ≥ 5 mmHg Valve area according to the continuity equation (cm²) ≤ 1 cm² ZTime velocity integral of the tricuspid inflow (cm) 60 cm Pressure…

…size and volume Women Men Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal ATRIAL DIMENSIONS LA diameter…

…early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour Doppler small,, < 10 mm length, narrow origin variable large, wide origin Ratio pulmonic to aortic flow…

…of which waves are visible, the wave(s) that reflect ventricular depolarization is always referred to as the QRS complex . Naming of the waves in…

…arrhythmias in patients receiving agents known to alter the electrical properties of the heart (inducing QRS or QT prolongation) or causing electrolyte abnormalities, such as…

…transient abnormal vasoconstriction of one or more coronary arteries. Epicardial spasm produces a reversible functional occlusion and usually causes transmural ischaemia. The resulting abnormalities in…

…anticoagulation is highly effective in reducing stroke risk. Wrfarin and novel oral anticoagulants can reduce the risk of stroke by 70%, as compared with placebo…

…Go through the medication and any herbal preparations carefully — drug induced liver injury is the commonest cause of acute liver failure in the Nordic countries.

…of flow limiting disease, myocardial ischaemia may develop. The electrical manifestation may be horizontal or downsloping ST segment depression, reflecting an abnormal repolarization response to…

…mural thrombi to develop over infarcted myocardium in either ventricle. With contemporary imaging, LV thrombus has been reported in as many as 15% of patients…

…at a rate exceeding that of the sinoatrial (SA) node. This enhanced atrial activity is most commonly attributable to abnormal automaticity or re entry mechanisms…

…acts as a lubricant that prevents friction during ventricular contraction and relaxation. Pericardial effusion is the presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the…

…the gradual increase from V1 to V5 is absent. It may be broken, as in Figure 1 . Any type of infarction may cause pathological R…

…of premature ventricular contractions When every other beat on the ECG is a premature ventricular complex (PVC), the rhythm is referred to as PVC in…

…The regurgitation results in blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle during diastole. The most common cause of abnormal pulmonary regurgitation…

…GY. A novel user friendly score (HAS BLED) to assess 1 year risk of major bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation: the Euro Heart Survey…

…assessment of regional wall motion (left ventricle) TYPE OF MOTION DEFINITION WALL MOTION SCORE Normal Normal thickening (typically 30% thickening from end diastole to end…

…Gonzalo; Baumgartner, Helmut et al. (2012): Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). In European heart journal 33 (19), pp. 2451–2496…

…bradycardia due to dysfunction in the sinoatrial node is referred to as sinus node dysfunction (SND). If a person with ECG signs of SND is…

…either RV dysfunction or elevated biomarkers, or neither of these abnormalities in the presence of abnormal clinical risk assessment. Low risk PE is characterized by…

…inversion can occur without coronary artery disease. Proposed explanations in the source material include cardiac memory after abnormal ventricular activation, transient rate related conduction abnormalities…

…In apparently healthy individuals, SCORE2 and SCORE2 OP estimates can be used to classify 10 year risk as follows: Risk category 10 year risk of…

…than 5% of otherwise normal angiograms demonstrate bridging. The wide range reflects differences in ascertainment and imaging technique. Coronary fistulae represent abnormal communications between a…

…diabetes can contribute to the development of heart failure in the preserved and mildly reduced EF ranges, and obesity is increasingly recognised as a potential…

…remodeling may also occur in primary valvular disease. Increasing severity of mitral regurgitation is associated with worse outcomes. Pulmonary hypertension secondary to left heart disease…

…metabolic abnormalities; and abnormal pain perception in patients without demonstrable ischaemia. The absence of obstructive disease therefore does not establish a benign diagnosis. ANOCA/INOCA…

ECG Introduction to ECG interpretation 1. Which of the following ECG findings is typically considered a normal variant in asymptomatic athletes with no significant family…

…with roughly one in five strokes. Thrombus formation is most commonly related to the left atrial appendage, although competing mechanisms such as large artery atherosclerosis…

…such as termination of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, is limited. Pupillary light reflex (PLR) The pupillary light reflex (PLR) – the constriction of the pupils in response to…

…is often used to refer to tachycardias originating in the atria. The significance of QRS duration in judging arrhythmias can be summarised as follows: NCT…

…onset to the end of the QRS complex. A short QRS complex is desirable as it proves that the ventricles are depolarized rapidly, which in…

…an in depth discussion on mechanisms are referred to Zipes et al . Main causes of cardiac arrhythmias Arrhythmias arise if the impulse formation is abnormal…

…complex as an R’ wave (pronounced "R prime"), which is directed anteriorly and rightward. Due to the abnormal depolarization sequence of the right ventricle in…

…a normal finding. Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia In all other situations, sinus bradycardia should be regarded as a pathological finding. Numerous pathological conditions…

…direction as the net direction of the QRS complex. A net positive QRS complex should be followed by a net positive T wave (refer to…

…than does ventricular rhythm; idioventricular rhythm is primarily seen after reperfusion in an occluded coronary artery. It also occurs as side effect of drugs, hypoxia…

…particularly in the elderly An abnormal 24 hour rhythm should prompt investigation for sleep apnoea, renal disease and secondary hypertension, and lead to one dose…

…too low Normal Abnormal Abnormal A compensated simple disorder, or two opposing primary disorders It is therefore not enough to ask which of the pCO₂…

…early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour Doppler small,, < 10 mm length, narrow origin variable large, wide origin Ratio pulmonic to aortic flow…

…may be as much as three times higher than in individuals without comparable renal impairment. The cardiovascular burden of CKD extends beyond CAD to peripheral…

…delayed, partly due to autopsy studies demonstrating an absence of coronary thrombi in a significant proportion of deceased patients. Historically referred to as coronary thrombosis…

…identified as the final diagnosis. Reported prevalence varies according to the population and diagnostic criteria. MINOCA accounts for approximately 1–14% of ACS presentations in…

…new regional wall motion abnormality in an ischaemic distribution Identification of a coronary thrombus by angiography or autopsy, where applicable to the relevant infarction category…

…mmHg ≤15 mmHg ≤2 Wood units The source material also presents a CpcPH threshold of PVR ≥3 Wood units in an overlapping clinical classification table…

…A diagnosis of MI should not be made solely from an abnormal cTn concentration in the absence of evidence of ischaemia. Classification of myocardial infarction…

…ischemic episode, and these T wave inversions are referred to as post ischemic T waves . Such T waves are seen after periods of ischemia, after…

…defined as an ischaemic myocardial injury occurring in the context of a mismatch between myocardial oxygen supply and demand, which is not related to acute…

…explicitly removing female sex as an independent risk factor [2] . This change reflects robust evidence that female sex alone, in the absence of other comorbidities…