…Stanford type B: does not involve the ascending aorta and includes dissections involving the arch or descending aorta. In the DeBakey system: Type I: originates…

…periods . Prognosis in second degree AV block Mobitz type 1 Mobitz type I block may occur in younger healthy individuals (particularly during sleep). It is…

…This chapter discusses first degree atrioventricular (AV) block, also referred to as 1st degree AV block, AV block I, or AV block 1. Before proceeding…

…the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. By abrogating the effects of angiotensin II, ACE inhibitors stabilize left ventricular remodeling…

…left ventricular hypertrophy, left ventricular dysfunction, valve disease, coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure, congenital heart disease, diabetes mellitus (both type 1 and type…

…with LBBB morphology (i.e left bundle branch block appearance). This is explained by the fact that, as in LBBB, the left ventricle receives the…

…Because the conduction system is crucial for rapid and synchronized activation of the ventricles, conduction defects will typically cause abnormal ventricular activation (i.e. contraction)…

…necessary to establish a transcutaneous pacemaker, which is the only treatment with class I recommendation according to European (ESC) and North American (AHA, ACC) guidelines…

…causes, diagnosis & management This article covers the fundamental principles of atrioventricular (AV) blocks, which are classified into three types: first degree, second degree, and third…

…ischaemic ECG changes. The distinction between myocardial injury and type 2 infarction is particularly important. Type 2 infarction requires clinical evidence of ischaemia; an elevated…

…9 — — Overweight 25.0–29.9 — Increased Obesity 30.0–34.9 I High Obesity 35.0–39.9 II Very high Extreme obesity ≥40…

…Alternating block (right and left bundle branch block alternating from one beat to another) is uncommon. Ashman's phenomenon : This type of aberration occurs when…

…AV block which may be unpleasant to the patient. This side effect lasts a few seconds. Case reports have indicated that the risk of high…

…the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation. Because color Doppler is a type of pulsed wave Doppler, it is limited by the Nyquist limit…

…highest with AV block 2 Mobitz type 2 and AV block 3. The only treatment with a class I recommendation for the management of acute…

…blocks. Importantly, first degree sinoatrial block and third degree sinoatrial block cannot be diagnosed using surface ECG (i.e. ECG recorded on the body surface)…

…wall; this type of LAD is called wrap around LAD (because it wraps around the apex). Left circumflex coronary artery (LCX) In 90% of individuals…

…that type of normalization is much slower and it is explained by the gradual death (and thus the disappearance of membrane potential) in the ischemic…

…Second degree AV block Mobitz type I (Wenckebach block) : repeated cycles of gradually increasing PR interval until an atrial impulse (P wave) is blocked in…

…Second degree AV block Mobitz type I (Wenckebach block) : repeated cycles of gradually increasing PR interval until an atrial impulse (P wave) is blocked in…

…exceed 60 cmH₂O . Gel cuffed masks of the i gel type have no cuff to inflate and are chosen on weight alone. When in doubt…

…in increased levels of circulating pro inflammatory cytokines that may cause plaque rupture (i.e the risk of atherosclerotic plaque rupture is increased during infections)…

…settings, while the broader lipid lowering recommendation refers to a recurrent event without requiring that it be of the same type as the initial event…

…aortic stenosis As aortic stenosis progresses, pressure conditions on the left side change dramatically, including in the left ventricle, left atrium, aorta and coronary arteries…

…flutter. Similar to atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter can be classified into the following types: Acute atrial flutter (includes newly diagnosed cases). Paroxysmal atrial flutter. Chronic…

…since it coincides with ventricular depolarization (i.e. QRS complex), which has much stronger electrical potentials. Cell types in electrocardiology For the purpose of this…

…AV block Definition Indication for pacing AV block I PR interval ≥0.22 s Rarely AV block II, type 1 (Wencheback block) PR interval is…

…normal (i.e QRS duration <0.12 s). However, the QRS complex can be wide (QRS duration ≥0.12 s) if there is a left…

…Indeed, any cell type in the ventricles may cause ventricular arrhythmias. Definitions and ECG criteria for ventricular rhythm and idioventricular rhythm Ventricular rhythm exists if…

…both ventricles are dilated and left ventricular systolic function is impaired (i.e ejection fraction is reduced). Left ventricular diastolic function may be normal or…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Ventricular tachycardia (VT): types, causes, ECG features and management This chapter deals with ventricular tachycardia from a clinical perspective, with emphasis…

…tachyarrhythmia (tachycardia). Sinus tachycardia is the result of an increased rate of depolarization (i.e increased automaticity) in the sinoatrial node. This simply means that…

…hypertrophy, it may still be normal when compared to reference values. Figure 1. Types of left ventricular hypertrophy. Left ventricular volume is reduced in conc

…abnormalities. Assessment of wall motion abnormalities is particularly important in the setting of chronic or acute coronary artery disease. All types of ischemia– chronic, acute…

…Figure 1. Types of ST segment elevations on ECG. Current guideline criteria for ischemic ST segment elevation: New ST segment elevations in at least two…

…switch from a contractile to a synthetic state, producing abundant extracellular matrix (ECM) components, primarily interstitial collagen types I and III, elastin, and proteoglycans [6] …

Cardiology Endocrinology & metabolism Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major cardiovascular risk condition. It is associated with a two to four…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and Pathophysiology Type 2 myocardial infarction (MI) is defined as an ischaemic myocardial injury occurring in the context of a…

Visual assessment of regional wall motion (left ventricle) TYPE OF MOTION DEFINITION WALL MOTION SCORE Normal Normal thickening (typically 30% thickening from end diastole to…

Cardiology Clinical chemistry & laboratory medicine Definition and Pathophysiology B type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N terminal pro BNP (NT proBNP) are circulating markers of myocardial…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Pathophysiology Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a hepatic protein that regulates the availability of the low density…

…shift. For decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood…

Echocardiography Cardiomyopathy caused by tachycardia A prolonged tachycardia can cause cardiomyopathy with left ventricular dilation. This type of cardiomyopathy, referred to as tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy…

…muscle, and bone mass. It does not indicate the types or distribution of body fat. It may not be accurate for all populations, particularly at…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…Definition and therapeutic rationale Inclisiran is a liver directed small interfering RNA (siRNA) designed to reduce production of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9)…

…to apolipoprotein(a). The length of apolipoprotein(a) varies because of genetically determined differences in the number of kringle IV type 2 repeats. Lp(a)…

…the true lumen Occlusion of a major epicardial artery or bypass graft Side branch occlusion or thrombus Disruption of collateral flow Distal embolization Stent thrombosis…

…Brugada Type 1 pattern B: Profound sinus bradycardia (<30 beats/min or sinus pauses ≥3s) C: Increased QRS voltage (isolated QRS voltage criteria for left…

…pharmacological basis Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a class of oral agents initially developed for glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)…

…It is a PCI related myocardial infarction when angiography or autopsy documents thrombosis and the diagnostic criteria used for type 1 myocardial infarction are fulfilled…

…risk factors, type of symptoms etc. Chest pain is one of the most nuanced symptoms in clinical practice and it is fundamental to be able…

…by a repolarization (recovery). The action potential occurs in all cardiac cells but its appearance varies depending on cell type. During de and repolarization ions…

Echocardiography Definition and types of cardiomyopathies Cardiomyopathy implies that the myocardium is structurally and functionally altered, and the pathological changes are not explained by coronary…

…It may be broken, as in Figure 1 . Any type of infarction may cause pathological R wave progression. However, the specificity for pathological R wave…

…normally 950–1150 mL/min Haemodynamic profiles in shock Type CO SVR CVP/PCWP ScvO₂ : : : : : : : : : Hypovolaemic ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ Cardiogenic ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓…

…mosm/kg or total osmolality 320 mosm/kg Typical patient Often type 1 diabetes, but also occurs in type 2 diabetes Usually type 2 diabetes…

…a significant midfacial or nasal fracture (absolute). An unsecured airway or haemodynamic instability — stabilise the patient first. Marked septal deviation towards the bleeding side (relative)…

…high value As required, in addition to the mealtime dose Never stop basal insulin in a person with type 1 diabetes , not even before fasting…

…COPD Arterial blood gas Type 1 respiratory failure: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with a normal or low PaCO₂ — a problem of oxygenation. Type 2: PaO₂…