…pharmacological basis Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a class of oral agents initially developed for glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)…

…For decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood pressure…

…7] . The dominant risk factors for HFpEF include hypertension (present in 80% of cases), obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease (CKD), sedentary lifestyle…

…possible stent thrombosis for clinical research and outcome assessment. Predisposing factors Domain Factors associated with stent thrombosis Clinical Acute myocardial infarction, diabetes mellitus, renal failure…

…cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure, congenital heart disease, diabetes mellitus (both type 1 and type 2), obesity, smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease…

…and potassium should be evaluated within 1 to 2 weeks after initiation of ACE inhibitors, especially in patients with preexisting azotemia, hypotension, hyponatremia, diabetes mellitus…

…diagnosis of DKA requires three components: diabetes or hyperglycaemia, ketosis and metabolic acidosis. A very high glucose value is no longer required [1]. Diabetic ketoacidosis…

…few days. Principles Insulin component Function Who needs it : : : Basal insulin (intermediate or long acting) Covers fasting glucose production Everyone with type 1 diabetes, always…

…carcinoma Less commonly, ectopic aldosterone production Familial forms include familial hyperaldosteronism type 1, formerly termed glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism, and other familial forms associated with adrenal…

…to a single lesion or process. Although Type 1 MI and acute coronary syndromes are commonly related to atherothrombotic events, myocardial ischaemia may also result…

…statin therapy reduced LDL C by approximately 16.5%; the reduction in a subgroup with diabetes was approximately 19.1%. The drug also lowers hsCRP…

…trials are underway. Figure 1. As of March 25 (2020), there have been more than 530,000 individuals with confirmed COVID 19, of whom more…

…among patients with HFPEF, as compared with patients with HFREF. Table 1. Types of heart failure. Type Description Ejection fraction (%) HFREF Heart Failure with Reduced…

…among patients with HFPEF, as compared with patients with HFREF. Table 1. Types of heart failure. Type Description Ejection fraction (%) HFREF Heart Failure with Reduced…

…matched controls without autoimmune disease. The greatest risks were reported with systemic sclerosis, Addison disease, SLE and type 1 diabetes. Traditional factors such as smoking…

…heart failure, obesity, type 2 diabetes and physical inactivity. The increased use of computed tomography (CT), and improvements in CT techniques, have increased the detection…

…compression may be applied at all, and if so at what pressure. Palpable foot pulses are not an acceptable substitute, and in patients with diabetes…

…left ventricle) TYPE OF MOTION DEFINITION WALL MOTION SCORE Normal Normal thickening (typically 30% thickening from end diastole to end systole). 1 Hypokinesia Reduced thickening…

… severe, ≥ 4.0 m/s or a valve area < 1.0 cm² with a mean gradient ≥ 40 mmHg. Fluid responsiveness Static measures such as…

…elastomer coating may remain for up to twelve weeks, latex with a PTFE coating for a shorter period. Procedure In men 1. Supine with the…

…calculation. Echocardiographic Calculation of Qp/Qs 1. Measurement of Left Ventricular Outflow Tract (LVOT) Diameter Optimal View : Mid transgastric left ventricular short axis (LVSAX) view…

…Mobitz type 1 block is characterized by a gradual prolongation of the PR interval over a few heart cycles until an atrial impulse is completely…

…categorised as myocardial injury. Clinical Presentation and Symptoms Patients with Type 2 MI frequently present with acute chest pain and troponin elevation. The clinical manifestation…

…central clinical danger is progressive aortic wall disruption, rupture and compromise of branch vessels. Type A disease may cause cardiac tamponade, severe acute aortic regurgitation…

…context: Type 1 MI: Caused by atherothrombotic coronary artery disease, usually precipitated by atherosclerotic plaque disruption (rupture or erosion). The dynamic thrombotic component can vary…

…caused by restenosis Type 5 MI associated with coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) Types 4b and 4c fulfil the criteria for type 1 MI because…

…displays first degree AV block (PR interval ≥0,22 s) along with wide QRS complexes (QRS duration ≥0,12 s) there is a high probability…

…interpretation 1. Which of the following ECG findings is typically considered a normal variant in asymptomatic athletes with no significant family history? A: Mobitz Type…

…For patients with a recurrent atherothrombotic event while receiving maximally tolerated statin therapy, an LDL C goal below 1.0 mmol/L (<40 mg/dL…

…further divided into the following categories: Lacunar stroke or lacunar infarct (occlusion of small penetrating arteries) : This is the most common type of ischaemic stroke…

…pacemaker is established. Drug Effect Dose, kinetics Comment Atropine Acetylcholine receptor antagonist 1 mg IV every 3 5 minutes, maximum 3 mg IV. T½ 3…

…recovering completely after restoration of sinus rhythm (or any other rhythm with normal ventricular rate and activation). Recovery may, however, take several months. Table 1…

…Fragmented QRS complex The definition of fragmented QRS complexes ( Figure 2 ) are as follows: QRS complex with more than 1 R wave and/or notch…

…< 120 ms with a delta wave and QRS 110 ms. Brugada pattern type 1: ST elevation ≥ 2 mm of coved type with a negative…

…Type 1 respiratory failure: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with a normal or low PaCO₂ — a problem of oxygenation. Type 2: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with…

…associated with in stent restenosis. Type 5 MI: MI related to CABG. Type 4b and type 4c events fulfil the criteria for type 1 MI…

…not prolonged in leads V5–V6 (which is not consistent with RBBB, in which there must be wide QRS complexes). In type 1 Brugada syndrome…

…all P waves are followed by QRS complexes. Second degree AV block is subdivided into the following variants: Second degree AV block Mobitz type 1 …

…Dose Initial dose: 1 2 mg/h iv. Increase as necessary. Rapid titration is possible. Maximum dose: 21 mg/h iv. Common therapeutic dose: 4…

…be of the same type as the initial event. Ezetimibe is recommended when the LDL C target is not achieved with the maximum tolerated statin…

…completed. The duration of the action potential is approximately 0.20 seconds in atrial myocardium and 0.3 seconds in the ventricular myocardium ( Figure 1…

…arteries and arterial territories The two main coronary arteries emanate from the aortic bulb ( Figure 1 ): The right coronary artery ( RCA ) originates on the right…

…troponin attributable to myocardial ischaemia. UA presents with compatible ischaemic symptoms but without cardiac specific troponin elevation above the 99th percentile. The clinical presentation should…

…divided into three angiographic patterns: Type Angiographic appearance Diagnostic considerations Type 1 Contrast staining of the arterial wall with multiple lumens or radiolucent channels The…

…UA has precipitously declined, as many cases previously classified as UA are now recognized as micro infarctions (NSTEMI) [8] . Type 1 vs. Type 2 Myoca

…Mobitz type 2 frequently progresses to third degree AV block. ECG examples are given in Figure 1 . Figure 1. Third degree AV block (complete heart…

…classified according to the Singh–Vaughan Williams classification (Table 1). Agents in bold text are commonly used to prevent or treat acute and subacute ventricular…

…INR (International Normalized Ratio) E lderly (age 65 years) D rugs/alcohol concomitantly Each component is assigned 1 point, with a maximum score of 9…

…muscle cell membranes, thus inhibiting the contraction of smooth muscle cells. As compared with nitroprusside, nicardipine induces relatively greater venodilation than arteriolar dilation. Effects Nicardipine…

…classified according to the Singh–Vaughan Williams classification (Table 1). Agents in bold text are commonly used to prevent or treat acute and subacute ventricular…

…antiarrhythmic drugs, or electromagnetic disturbance caused by other machines/devices. Below follows ECG tracings demonstrating each type of failure. Figure 1. Failure to pace. Figure…

…In fact, color Doppler is limited more by the Nyquist limit (as compared with standard pulsed wave Doppler), which is explained by the fact that…

…muscle cell membranes, thus inhibiting the contraction of smooth muscle cells. As compared with nitroprusside, nicardipine induces relatively greater venodilation than arteriolar dilation. Effects Nicardipine…

…Figure 1. Stimulation artifact (red arrows) in ventricular pacing. 25 mm/s. In addition to stimulation artifacts, ventricular pacing yields wide QRS complexes with LBBB…

…is based on total left ventricular mass, which can be calculated by obtaining the measurements shown in Figure 1. The ultrasound system automatically calculates RWT…

…distinguishes infarction according to its mechanism: Type 1 myocardial infarction: acute atherosclerotic plaque disruption or erosion with coronary thrombosis. Type 2 myocardial infarction: acute myocardial…

…block II, type 1 (Wencheback block) PR interval is gradually prolonged until one atrial impulse (P wave) is blocked in the AV node. Generally not…

…Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach block) Pauses up to 4 seconds in patients with atrial fibrillation. Bradycardia in atrial fibrillation (bradycardia–tachycardia syndrome) Individuals with sick…

…conduction before it is completely blocked, is referred to as Wenckebach phenomenon (also referred to as Wenckebach periodicity ). Figure 2. Type 1 second degree sinoatrial…

…check the sample type, supplemental oxygen, sampling technique, air bubbles and analytical delay, and compare with the electrolyte panel Rapid classification pH pCO₂ HCO₃ Likely…