…shift. For decades, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity was siloed, with clinicians focusing primarily on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) reduction, blood…

…pharmacological basis Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a class of oral agents initially developed for glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)…

…It is a PCI related myocardial infarction when angiography or autopsy documents thrombosis and the diagnostic criteria used for type 1 myocardial infarction are fulfilled…

…cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure, congenital heart disease, diabetes mellitus (both type 1 and type 2), obesity, smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease…

…7] . The dominant risk factors for HFpEF include hypertension (present in 80% of cases), obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease (CKD), sedentary lifestyle…

…and potassium should be evaluated within 1 to 2 weeks after initiation of ACE inhibitors, especially in patients with preexisting azotemia, hypotension, hyponatremia, diabetes mellitus…

…mosm/kg or total osmolality 320 mosm/kg Typical patient Often type 1 diabetes, but also occurs in type 2 diabetes Usually type 2 diabetes…

…high value As required, in addition to the mealtime dose Never stop basal insulin in a person with type 1 diabetes , not even before fasting…

…unilateral adrenal hyperplasia Rare aldosterone producing adrenal carcinoma Less commonly, ectopic aldosterone production Familial forms include familial hyperaldosteronism type 1, formerly termed glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism…

…to a single lesion or process. Although Type 1 MI and acute coronary syndromes are commonly related to atherothrombotic events, myocardial ischaemia may also result…

…mg daily or an equivalent dose of another statin. Approximately 45% of participants had type 2 diabetes. Over a median follow up of 40.6…

…cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, advanced age, smoking, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, etc – are the most important risk factors for poor outcomes. The vast majority of infections…

…Table 1. Types of heart failure. Type Description Ejection fraction (%) HFREF Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction <40% HFmrEF Heart Failure with midrange Ejection Fraction…

…Table 1. Types of heart failure. Type Description Ejection fraction (%) HFREF Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction <40% HFmrEF Heart Failure with midrange Ejection Fraction…

…greatest risks were reported with systemic sclerosis, Addison disease, SLE and type 1 diabetes. Traditional factors such as smoking, family history of premature coronary disease…

…of cancer, heart failure, obesity, type 2 diabetes and physical inactivity. The increased use of computed tomography (CT), and improvements in CT techniques, have increased…

…a class 2–3 compression stocking. Tape measure for ankle circumference — this governs the choice of material and bandaging technique. Procedure Assessment 1. History: duration…

…left ventricle) TYPE OF MOTION DEFINITION WALL MOTION SCORE Normal Normal thickening (typically 30% thickening from end diastole to end systole). 1 Hypokinesia Reduced thickening…

…DO₂) = CO × (1.34 × Hb × SaO₂ + 0.003 × PaO₂), normally 950–1150 mL/min Haemodynamic profiles in shock Type CO SVR CVP/PCWP ScvO₂…

…or as a substitute for mobilisation and bladder training. Contraindications Type Condition : : Absolute Suspected urethral injury — blood at the meatus, a perineal or scrotal haematoma…

…calculation. Echocardiographic Calculation of Qp/Qs 1. Measurement of Left Ventricular Outflow Tract (LVOT) Diameter Optimal View : Mid transgastric left ventricular short axis (LVSAX) view…

…Mobitz type 1 block is characterized by a gradual prolongation of the PR interval over a few heart cycles until an atrial impulse is completely…

…plaque disruption is not a feature of Type 2 MI. The pathophysiology of Type 2 MI is fundamentally distinct from that of Type 1 MI…

…Type IIIb: extends below the diaphragm. The temporal classification is also clinically relevant: Hyperacute: less than 24 hours from symptom onset. Acute: 1–14 days…

…The Fourth Universal Definition classifies MI into five distinct subtypes based on pathophysiology and clinical context: Type 1 MI: Caused by atherothrombotic coronary artery disease…

…a stent thrombosis or restenosis. Type 1 myocardial infarction Definition and pathophysiology Type 1 MI results from acute coronary atherothrombosis. It is usually precipitated by…

…also referred to as 1st degree AV block, AV block I, or AV block 1. Before proceeding, it is recommended to review the basic concepts…

… A: Brugada Type 1 pattern B: Profound sinus bradycardia (<30 beats/min or sinus pauses ≥3s) C: Increased QRS voltage (isolated QRS voltage criteria for…

Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and Pathophysiology Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a hepatic protein that regulates the availability of the low density…

Echocardiography Cardiac thromboembolism Thromboembolism is a leading cause of death worldwide (1). Emboli originating in the atria, left atrial appendage (LAA), ventricles, valves, and proximal…

Conduction defects ECG Management and treatment of AV blocks (AV block 1, 2 & 3) Evaluation of patients with suspected AV blocks requires a thorough medical…

…type of cardiomyopathy, referred to as tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy , can be caused by any tachyarrhythmia leading to prolonged periods of rapid ventricular rate (Table 1…

…V5 is absent. It may be broken, as in Figure 1 . Any type of infarction may cause pathological R wave progression. However, the specificity for…

…pattern type 1: ST elevation ≥ 2 mm of coved type with a negative T wave in V1–V2. Early repolarisation: J point elevation ≥ 1 mm…

…COPD Arterial blood gas Type 1 respiratory failure: PaO₂ < 8 kPa with a normal or low PaCO₂ — a problem of oxygenation. Type 2: PaO₂…

…in stent restenosis. Type 5 MI: MI related to CABG. Type 4b and type 4c events fulfil the criteria for type 1 MI. Procedural myocardial…

…Paper speed 50 mm/s. Type 1 Brugada syndrome reminds somewhat of right bundle branch block (RBBB) in leads V1–V3, but the QRS duration…

…Mobitz type 1 . May also be referred to as Wenckebach block . Second degree AV block Mobitz type 2 . Second degree AV block (particularly Mobitz type…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…Definition and pharmacological basis Ezetimibe is a non statin lipid lowering agent that inhibits the Niemann–Pick C1 like 1 (NPC1L1) transporter in the intestine…

…by a repolarization (recovery). The action potential occurs in all cardiac cells but its appearance varies depending on cell type. During de and repolarization ions…

…arteries and arterial territories The two main coronary arteries emanate from the aortic bulb ( Figure 1 ): The right coronary artery ( RCA ) originates on the right…

…MI. Type 1 MI is generally related to an atherothrombotic event, whereas Types 2–5 MI have other mechanisms of myocardial ischaemia and necrosis. Unstable…

…sudden cardiac death. SCAD differs pathogenetically from atherosclerotic type 1 MI. It is an infrequent cause of ACS overall but represents a substantial proportion of…

…UA has precipitously declined, as many cases previously classified as UA are now recognized as micro infarctions (NSTEMI) [8] . Type 1 vs. Type 2 Myoca

…from second degree AV block Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach block) is uncommon. However, second degree AV block Mobitz type 2 frequently progresses to third degree…

…the function of cardiac ion channels. These agents are classified according to the Singh–Vaughan Williams classification (Table 1). Agents in bold text are commonly…

…leeding history or predisposition L abile INR (International Normalized Ratio) E lderly (age 65 years) D rugs/alcohol concomitantly Each component is assigned 1 point…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…the function of cardiac ion channels. These agents are classified according to the Singh–Vaughan Williams classification (Table 1). Agents in bold text are commonly…

…antiarrhythmic drugs, or electromagnetic disturbance caused by other machines/devices. Below follows ECG tracings demonstrating each type of failure. Figure 1. Failure to pace. Figure…

…the direction and extent of aortic valve regurgitation. Because color Doppler is a type of pulsed wave Doppler, it is limited by the Nyquist limit…

…Rapidly inactivated by esterases. Effects • Clevidipine is a dihydropyridine L type calcium channel blocker. Clevidipine is highly selective for vascular smooth muscle cells and has…

…on e.g the type of pacemaker, intrinsic cardiac activity, etc. The cardinal manifestation of pacing on surface ECG is the stimulation artifact (Figure 1)…

…is based on total left ventricular mass, which can be calculated by obtaining the measurements shown in Figure 1. The ultrasound system automatically calculates RWT…

…distinguishes infarction according to its mechanism: Type 1 myocardial infarction: acute atherosclerotic plaque disruption or erosion with coronary thrombosis. Type 2 myocardial infarction: acute myocardial…

…block II, type 1 (Wencheback block) PR interval is gradually prolonged until one atrial impulse (P wave) is blocked in the AV node. Generally not…

…Sinoatrial block Junctional rhythm First degree AV block Second degree AV block Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach block) Pauses up to 4 seconds in patients with…

…Type 1 second degree sinoatrial block. Second degree sinoatrial (SA) block type 2 In type 2 second degree sinoatrial block impulses are blocked sporadically (without…

…medication, fluid balance, renal function, electrolytes and supplemental oxygen [1]. Distinguish between: Acidaemia and alkalaemia , which describe the current pH of the blood. Acidosis and…