…beats per minute. Note that with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2…

…and fibrin formation. Within a stented segment, thrombus may also develop because of disturbed flow, residual dissection, inadequate stent expansion, incomplete apposition, or persistent disease…

…reproductive and pregnancy related history. Female specific or female predominant factors associated with later cardiovascular risk include: Premature menopause Premature ovarian insufficiency Hypertensive disorders of…

…the volume, echogenicity and location of the effusion. Regarding the location, an effusion may be general (circumferential) or localized to a specific area. The effusion…

…Disease specific genetic architecture HCM is predominantly associated with variants affecting sarcomeric proteins, particularly MYH7 and MYBPC3. Approximately 40–60% of tested patients have a…

Procedurer A corticosteroid injection into soft tissue gives rapid but time limited pain relief and rarely alters the natural history of the disease. In lateral…

…CKD also worsens the prognosis of established CVD. Mechanisms linking CKD to cardiovascular disease The association is mediated by both traditional and kidney specific pathways…

…involvement Coexisting multivessel disease The extent of jeopardized myocardium Left ventricular systolic function Diabetes and other comorbidities Anatomical complexity and completeness of possible revascularization A…

…disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque through rupture or erosion. The relative contributions of plaque disease and thrombus vary considerably. Thrombotic material may embolize distally and…

…ostia. It remains the reference standard for defining the extent of coronary artery disease because it provides anatomical information while permitting functional assessment and, when…

…known malignancy may suggest specific, nonidiopathic etiologies [2]. Summary of Pain Characteristics The following table synthesizes the key differential diagnoses and their characteristic pain patterns…

…have specific contraindications: Adenosine, Dipyridamole, Regadenoson : Should be avoided in patients with active bronchospasm, severe hypotension, or high degree AV block. Caffeine and other methylxanthines…

…propelled by breakthroughs in engineering, software development, and progress in our understanding of the pathophysiology of cardiac disease. Ultrasound systems have become cheaper, more portable…

…disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older Persons (SCORE2 OP) are European risk prediction models designed to estimate 10 year risk of…

…blood pressure Other cardiovascular risk factors and relevant comorbidities Evidence of hypertension mediated organ damage Existing cardiac, cerebrovascular, or renal disease The possibility of a…

…Definition and Pathophysiology Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are foundational therapies in cardiovascular medicine, widely utilized for the management of hypertension, chronic ischemic heart disease…

…C) and other apoB containing lipoproteins in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Atherosclerosis develops through the progressive deposition and retention of LDL C and other apoB…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Acute Myocardial Infarction: Definition & Criteria Acute myocardial infarction is the most severe complication of coronary artery disease. The most common…

…Ischaemic heart disease Atrial arrhythmias Pericardial disease, including constriction Right ventricular dysfunction caused by pulmonary embolism Infiltrative cardiomyopathies, particularly cardiac amyloidosis Sepsis and other hyperdynamic…

…risks of myocardial infarction, stroke, end stage renal disease, and death may be two to six fold higher in affected adults. True, apparent, and pseudo…

…in the context of the clinical presentation and other findings. A reduced CFR may occur with angiographically insignificant epicardial disease because of abnormalities in the…

…contraindications, and subject preparations. We will also discuss the relevance of withholding specific cardioactive medications during exercise testing (exercise ECG). Indications for exercise stress test…

…The test has a sensitivity of around 60 % and is not specific: motor neurone disease, myopathies and Lambert–Eaton syndrome may also give a positive…

…definition of MI. Type 1 MI is generally related to an atherothrombotic event, whereas Types 2–5 MI have other mechanisms of myocardial ischaemia and…

…injury leads to release of cardiac troponin, but troponin elevation is not specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated troponin…

…is mediated by the combined effects of hyperglycaemia, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, obesity, smoking and other conventional risk factors, together with diabetes specific vascular and metabolic abnormalities…

…The magnitude of untreated LDL C elevation. The presence and age of onset of premature CAD or other vascular disease. A history of myocardial infarction…

…evaluation of patients receiving digoxin reveals specific electrophysiologic profiles. Digoxin's autonomic actions largely slow the sinus node discharge rate, shorten atrial refractoriness, and prolong…

…intraluminal mass and lesion haziness raise suspicion of thrombus, although haziness is not specific. Intravascular imaging can identify plaque disruption, thrombus and other structural features…

…Addison's disease and digoxin intoxication may also cause hyperkalemia. ECG in mild hyperkalemia (potassium 6,0 mmol/L) The earliest sign of hyperkalemia is…

…develop during acute management. AF is often haemodynamically tolerated and may require no specific acute therapy beyond appropriate anticoagulation and management of ventricular rate. However…

…pads if the patient is unstable or at marked risk of arrhythmia. 4. Take a full blood count, electrolytes, creatinine, glucose, high sensitivity troponin and…

…Q waves and guidelines do not state any ECG criteria specific to R wave progression. Figure 1. Pathological R wave progression is indicative of previous…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Lathundar ECG Criteria for ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI) The diagnosis of STEMI relies on specific electrocardiographic thresholds for ST…

…to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine. The anterolateral position also works and is

…to treat (NNT) for the ACLS specific interventions is much higher or uncertain, meaning that the efficacy of these interventions is much lower or uncertain…

…benign and the most common cause of sinus arrest/pause. It commonly affects younger individuals who endure intense emotional stress, acute pain or other stimuli…

…In STE ACS, on the other hand, the ST segment depressions are secondary findings and the primary findings are the ST segment elevations. As explained…

…the other valves. The area is calculated by measuring the diameter of the valve ( area = π × radius 2 , where radius = diameter/2 ), and…

…the last dose, the renal function and the severity of the bleeding 7 Manage antiplatelet drugs according to their indication. Do not routinely stop aspirin…

…Biomarkers and Laboratory Findings The source material does not provide information on biomarkers or laboratory findings specific to the evaluation of bradycardia. Treatment and Management…

…loss of organized atrial systole. Transesophageal echocardiography and surgical pathology demonstrate that over 90% of thrombi in non valvular AF originate within this specific anatomical…

…terms of rhythm, morphology, normal findings, normal variants, etc – from adult electrocardiograms. It is crucial to be familiar with normal findings, normal variants, and pathology…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology ECG Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re entry This section introduces the most common arrhythmias encountered in clinical practice, beginning…

…to recite the months of the year backwards. A normal result does not exclude delirium, however, and an abnormal result is not specific to delirium…

…prediction tool currently exists. At the other end, roughly two thirds of ICDs implanted for reduced LVEF never deliver an appropriate shock, so the false…

…of supraventricular tachycardias (SVTs), usually within 30 seconds. Doses higher than 18 mg are unlikely to revert a tachycardia and should not be used. Specific…

…features of Brugada syndrome are fairly specific to the disorder, provided that the clinical characteristics are in line with the disorder. There are however other…

…highlighting specific segments of the left ventricle that demonstrate abnormalities. These tools compare perfusion data to population based reference databases, often adjusted for sex and…

…response and by repeated laboratory measurements, not by the values on admission alone. Diagnosis Current diagnostic criteria According to the international consensus report of 2024…

…set the COPD exacerbation apart from many other causes of acute dyspnoea: oxygen must be titrated cautiously and the blood gas determines the need for…

Info Table 1 provides a summary of the indications, contraindications, dosage, administration, warnings, precautions, and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary…

…LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). This causal relationship is supported by genetic, observational and…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes…

…history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre. Indications Brief attacks of vertigo, seconds…

…Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit platelet function and enhance the effect of anticoagulants, increasing bleeding risk. Monitor coagulation…

…and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet activation and…

…one pathway of platelet activation, its antiplatelet effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and secondary…

…two vascular beds. Carotid disease therefore commonly coexists with coronary artery disease (CAD), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal…

…three main questions discussed in media, blogs and on social plattforms: Is high cholesterol a true cause of coronary artery disease? Does diet affect cholesterol…