…systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, are important risk enhancing conditions and are more prevalent in women. Chronic kidney disease and several other comorbidities also…

…Contraindications Absolute: Cellulitis, a skin wound or other infection over the injection site. Bacteraemia or suspected septic bursitis or arthritis. A joint prosthesis in the…

…thrombus can fragment, embolize to other coronary branches or vascular beds, propagate through gaps between stent struts, and compromise the treated lumen. Conventional angiography has…

…with a paper speed of 25 mm/s, which is standard in the US and many other countries, a 2:1 block will be difficult…

…STEMI and other ECG patterns suggesting acute coronary occlusion are time dependent conditions. The decision on immediate reperfusion is based on symptoms, the ECG and…

…sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes. They may occur in both NSTEMI and STEMI. QTc prolongation The QT…

…present Factors that may be contributing to elevated blood pressure Other cardiovascular risk factors and relevant comorbidities Evidence of hypertension mediated organ damage Existing cardiac…

…two contiguous leads [8, 10]. The specific voltage thresholds vary based on patient age, sex, and lead location, as detailed below [8, 10]: Patient Demographic…

…the sensitization of sensory nerve endings due to the accumulation of bradykinin. ACE is responsible for metabolizing bradykinin and other tachykinins, such as substance P…

…specific for myocardial infarction. Other conditions may produce cardiomyocyte injury and elevated troponin, so biomarker interpretation must be integrated with the clinical history, ECG, and…

…However, other inheritance patterns, de novo variants, incomplete penetrance and variable phenotypic expression complicate risk prediction. Familial clustering may also reflect shared environmental or behavioural…

…clinical presentation and other findings. A reduced CFR may occur with angiographically insignificant epicardial disease because of abnormalities in the coronary resistance vessels. Left ventricular…

…test has a sensitivity of around 60 % and is not specific: motor neurone disease, myopathies and Lambert–Eaton syndrome may also give a positive result…

…to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine. The anterolateral position also works and is…

…containing lipoproteins, including: LDL Intermediate density lipoprotein (IDL) Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) Chylomicrons and other triglyceride rich particles Thus, non…

…and SCORE2 OP The models include conventional cardiovascular risk factors: Age Sex Smoking status Systolic BP Cholesterol values Risk estimation uses the appropriate sex specific…

…heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and other arrhythmias or conduction abnormalities. CKD also worsens the prognosis of established CVD. Mechanisms linking CKD to cardiovascular disease The…

…a specific high affinity site on the extracytoplasmic face of the alpha subunit of the Na+ K+ ATPase. This binding is entropically driven and preferentially…

…dysfunction caused by pulmonary embolism Infiltrative cardiomyopathies, particularly cardiac amyloidosis Sepsis and other hyperdynamic states In cardiac amyloidosis, BNP or NT proBNP may be markedly…

…concentration above the assay specific 99th percentile upper reference limit (URL). It is considered acute when there is a rise and/or fall in cTn…

…including chronic coronary syndromes and acute coronary syndromes HF across the spectrum of left ventricular ejection fraction AF and other arrhythmias Ischaemic stroke PAD CKD…

…of cervical spine injury, in which scenario head tilt chin lift should only be used if other methods fail to open the airway. Figure 1…

…have specific contraindications: Adenosine, Dipyridamole, Regadenoson : Should be avoided in patients with active bronchospasm, severe hypotension, or high degree AV block. Caffeine and other methylxanthines…

…or other professionals. A physician is always formally responsible for conducting the test. All personnel must be appropriately trained and the laboratory must be equipped…

…examination, other examinations (which are not included in the standard examination), may be warranted. For most pathological conditions, there are specific guidelines (see links below)…

…structures (discussed in detail in Chapter 1): Specific clusters of atrial myocardium : There are clusters of atrial myocardium that possess automaticity and thus pacemaker function…

…In STE ACS, on the other hand, the ST segment depressions are secondary findings and the primary findings are the ST segment elevations. As explained…

…the other valves. The area is calculated by measuring the diameter of the valve ( area = π × radius 2 , where radius = diameter/2 ), and…

…intestinal transit. Coffee ground vomiting is less specific than fresh haematemesis and can also be seen when the bleeding is slow or has stopped. The…

…is generally related to an atherothrombotic event, whereas Types 2–5 MI have other mechanisms of myocardial ischaemia and necrosis. Unstable angina (UA) represents myocardial…

…not provide specific details regarding the physical examination or general evaluation of patients with bradycardia. Diagnostics Electrocardiographic assessment is fundamental to the diagnosis and management…

…patient’s specific procedural risks. Vascular access and access site complications Radial and femoral access Radial access is generally preferred for coronary angiography and PCI…

…intraluminal mass and lesion haziness raise suspicion of thrombus, although haziness is not specific. Intravascular imaging can identify plaque disruption, thrombus and other structural features…

…are not specific to left main disease. The examination should nevertheless assess the consequences of extensive myocardial ischaemia, including heart failure, haemodynamic compromise and rhythm…

Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Resistant hypertension is a clinical indicator rather than a distinct disease. It identifies patients whose blood pressure remains uncontrolled despite intensive…

…originate within this specific anatomical cul de sac [19] . Concurrently, the atrial myocardium undergoes structural remodeling driven by aging, hypertension, heart failure, and the arrhythmia…

…however, display both ECG changes and symptoms. Troponins and other biomarkers of myocardial necrosis (infarction) Myocardium can endure 20 to 30 minutes of complete ischemia…

…age specific normal interval. P wave with constant morphology preceding every QRS complex. The P wave is positive in lead II (and also I and…

…the sinoatrial node) is a common finding in athletes and during sleep; in these scenarios, it should not be considered abnormal. On the other hand…

…the volume, echogenicity and location of the effusion. Regarding the location, an effusion may be general (circumferential) or localized to a specific area. The effusion…

…however, and an abnormal result is not specific to delirium. Symptoms are often worse in the evening and at night, but diurnal variation is not…

…is both insensitive and non specific for SCD. Most people who die suddenly never had an ejection fraction measured before death, and among those who…

…higher than 18 mg are unlikely to revert a tachycardia and should not be used. Specific dosing adjustments are required in certain patient populations: Pediatric…

…herpes zoster pain are other considerations when assessing chest pain [2]. Autoimmune/Malignancy: A history suggesting an autoimmune disorder or known malignancy may suggest specific…

…specific for FH. Corneal arcus is particularly informative when it occurs before age 45 years. Homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia HoFH typically presents with: Extensive cutaneous and…

…There are however other disorders that may bring about similar ECG changes, and these are as follows: Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy (ARVC/ARVD) – ARVC…

…indicating microvascular dysfunction or other pathologies. The software allows for detailed regional analysis of myocardial perfusion, highlighting specific segments of the left ventricle that demonstrate…

…Pointed T waves are tall and narrow at the top. Refer to Figure 1 . Patients with left ventricular hypertrophy may instead display normalization of secondary…

…pregnant women and patients with advanced renal failure, marked heart failure or circulatory shock require a specific protocol and early specialist involvement. DKA and HHS…

…formation is most commonly related to the left atrial appendage, although competing mechanisms such as large artery atherosclerosis and small vessel disease may also contribute…

…6. Assess the indication for antibiotics on the basis of sputum purulence, the other cardinal symptoms and the severity of the illness. 7. Start NIV…

…administration, warnings, precautions, and other relevant information for the drug Ticagrelor . Table 1 Summary Indications Ticagrelor, in combination with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is indicated for…

…Non HDL C and apoB are secondary targets or risk refining measures, particularly in patients with: Diabetes or other cardiometabolic risk factors Obesity Insulin resistance…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes…

…drugs . The diagnosis rests on the history, a positive Dix–Hallpike test and the absence of other neurological findings. The treatment is a repositioning manoeuvre…

…Interactions Pharmacodynamic interactions Anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or other platelet aggregation inhibitors: Salicylates inhibit platelet function and enhance the effect of anticoagulants, increasing bleeding risk. Monitor coagulation…

…and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet activation and…

…effect is relatively limited compared with agents that inhibit other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and secondary prevention is fundamental: Primary prevention refers to…

…peripheral artery disease (PAD), and other manifestations of systemic atherosclerosis. The principal clinical concern is cerebral embolism or haemodynamic compromise leading to transient ischaemic attack…

…Study, which demonstrated that high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were strongly associated with coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction…