…channelopathies, heritable aortopathies, selected congenital heart diseases, pulmonary arterial hypertension and thromboembolic disorders. Most recognised heritable cardiovascular conditions demonstrate autosomal dominant transmission, in which an…

…of COVID 19 relies on small samples of hospitalized patients. Most reports have suggested that comorbidities – e.g. cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, advanced age, smoking…

…kidney or liver disease, especially when combined with diuretics (risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease…

…of diseases and medications may cause sinus tachycardia; e.g congestive heart failure, lung disease (e.g COPD), fever, infections, anemia, myocardial ischemia/infarction, pulmonary…

…acute RV failure Syncope or altered clinical status Comorbid cardiopulmonary disease, active cancer, and other conditions incorporated into validated clinical risk tools Acute RV failure…

…classification is clinically useful but should not be regarded as a series of completely discrete diseases. Heart failure extends across the full range of LVEF…

…dyspnoea in a patient with COPD. Pneumonia, heart failure, pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax and acute coronary syndrome must be actively considered [1]. Do the following early:…

…48 hours Ongoing unstable angina Uncontrolled cardiac arrhythmia with hemodynamic compromise Active endocarditis Symptomatic severe aortic stenosis Decompensated heart failure Acute pulmonary embolism, pulmonary infarction…

…by heart disease, other medical conditions (pulmonary embolism, bleeding, stroke, etc.) as well as cases where the cause does not fall into the other categories…

…be taken at the next regular time. Use with caution in patients with asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Dyspnea has been reported in patients…

…Ischaemic heart disease Atrial arrhythmias Pericardial disease, including constriction Right ventricular dysfunction caused by pulmonary embolism Infiltrative cardiomyopathies, particularly cardiac amyloidosis Sepsis and other hyperdynamic…

…chest discomfort requires a systematic differential diagnosis, as the syndrome associated with ischemic heart disease is broader than chest pain itself, encompassing symptoms like tightness…

…pain (chest discomfort) HISTORY PARAMETER QUESTIONS COMMENTS Risk factors for the 5 serious etiologies Family history (focus on ischemic heart disease, aortic dissection, pulmonary embolism…

…congenital heart disease, diabetes mellitus (both type 1 and type 2), obesity, smoking, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Moreover, certain other…

…is titrated slowly. Caution in acute heart failure and in obstructive airways disease Verapamil or diltiazem When a beta blocker is contraindicated, for example in…

…an irregular or rapid heartbeat Dyspnoea and worsening pulmonary congestion Reduced exercise capacity Symptoms or signs of heart failure Haemodynamic instability Myocardial ischaemic symptoms or…

…ischaemia or previous infarction Dyspnoea requires assessment of dynamic LV function, valve disease, pulmonary pressure, or haemodynamics Stress imaging is not recommended in patients undergoing…

…Cardiac causes Systemic causes Heart failure Sepsis Myocarditis Chronic kidney disease Cardiomyopathy Stroke or subarachnoid haemorrhage Takotsubo syndrome Pulmonary embolism Recent coronary revascularization Infiltrative disease…

…ectopic atrial rhythm Side effect of digoxin. Heart failure. Lung disease (COPD, pulmonary hypertension, etc). Ischemic heart disease (coronary artery disease). Structural heart disease, any…

…and may occur even in the absence of pulmonary congestion. Patients may obtain relief by sitting forward. Other symptoms depend on the extent of reduction…

…in the brain, retina, heart, aorta, kidneys, or other vascular beds. Malignant hypertension represents an extreme form in which acute microvascular injury occurs, classically involving…

…as follows: Assessment of cardiovascular risk in screening. Detection of coronary artery disease (ischemic heart disease). Evaluation of coronary artery disease. Assessment of therapeutic response…

…the same broad category as a patient with coronary artery disease when clinically appropriate. Other coronary anomalies Anomalous coronary origin and course can impair coronary…

…Other causes include acute mechanical complications—particularly ventricular septal defect (VSD) and papillary muscle rupture with acute severe mitral regurgitation—predominant right ventricular (RV) infarction…

…holds true for cardiac arrests caused by chronic or acute ischemic heart disease, it is often not true in other circumstances (e.g. pulmonary embolism…

Cardiology Key points Levosimendan alleviates heart failure symptoms, increases cardiac output, and lowers pulmonary artery pressure without increasing myocardial oxygen consumption. The inotropic effect of…

…I and II. Heart axis deviation: right axis deviation (RAD) and left axis deviation (LAD) Causes of right axis deviation Normal in newborns. Right ventricular…

ECG Introduction to ECG interpretation The electrical axis of the heart Although often ignored, assessment of the electrical axis is an integral part of ECG…

…forward. Heart failure, pulmonary oedema and other conditions with a high risk of fluid overload — a relative contraindication requiring invasive monitoring and slower administration. Significant…

…venous pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure and systemic vascular resistance increases. Harmful neurohormonal pathways are activated, similar to those seen in heart failure. A thorough…

…tamponade. The classical signs of cardiac tamponade are hypotension, muffled heart sounds and jugular venous distention. Other frequent symptoms are pulsus paradoxus, pericardial friction sounds…

…structured around three principal diagnostic categories: Myocardial ischaemia , particularly acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Other cardiopulmonary causes , including myopericardial disease, pulmonary embolism, aortic emergencies, and pneumothorax…

…target Doses in venous thromboembolism Treatment doses in deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism differ from the atrial fibrillation doses and include an initial high…

…Common manifestations are hypertensive encephalopathy, intracerebral haemorrhage, acute coronary syndrome, acute left ventricular failure with pulmonary oedema, acute aortic syndrome, acute kidney injury, microangiopathic haemolysis…

…Pneumonia High altitude sickness Aspiration Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Bronchospasm (asthma) Other : Coma Central hypoventilation syndromes Neuromuscular diseases Anemia The natural course of asphyxia…

…occlusion, likely because most such occlusions result in prehospital cardiac arrest and death. As in other acute coronary events, the thrombotic process is dynamic, with…

…resorption. Other conditions in which high flow oxygen is given irrespective of the saturation according to international guidelines are decompression sickness and sickle cell crisis…

…patient denial, often leads to a mistaken impression of indigestion. STEMI pain can simulate pain from acute pericarditis, pulmonary embolism, acute aortic dissection, costochondritis, and…

…calculated by quantifying the volume flowing through the mitral valve, tricuspid valve or pulmonary valve. These volumes can be calculated using the same principle as…

…occurs in LVH. Deep S wave in V5 or V6 ( 6 mm) Large RS complexes in multiple leads P pulmonale Figure 1. ECG changes seen…

…of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes. They may occur in both NSTEMI and STEMI…

…is the principal therapeutic target in lipid management because LDL and other apolipoprotein B containing lipoproteins play a causal role in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)…

…and infarction Myocardial ischemia: cellular changes, ECG signs and development of infarction Like all other cells in the human body, cardiac myocytes use ATP (adenosine…

…dangerous differential diagnoses [1,2]. STEMI and other ECG patterns suggesting acute coronary occlusion are time dependent conditions. The decision on immediate reperfusion is based…

…of the Dix–Hallpike test. Marked obesity or spinal disease that makes positioning impossible. Severe angina, heart failure or recent myocardial infarction. Red flags — investigate…

…cardiovascular death, and progression of atherosclerotic disease in patients with established coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease. Antiplatelet therapy is a central component because platelet…

…C) and other apoB containing lipoproteins in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Atherosclerosis develops through the progressive deposition and retention of LDL C and other apoB…

…that inhibit other platelet pathways. The distinction between primary and secondary prevention is fundamental: Primary prevention refers to individuals without established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD…

…stroke; symptoms suggesting current or recent cerebral ischaemia; known CAD, PAD, or other atherosclerotic disease; diabetes and other cardiovascular risk factors; smoking, hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, and…

…Framingham Heart Study, which demonstrated that high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, among other risk factors, were strongly associated with coronary artery disease and…

…syndrome (ACS), DAPT is used to reduce recurrent myocardial infarction, stent thrombosis and other ischemic events after coronary angiography, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), or medical…

…heart team, including an interventional cardiologist and cardiac surgeon, is recommended when both revascularization strategies are feasible, particularly in complex multivessel or left main disease…

…manifestation of systemic arterial disease rather than an isolated disorder of the lower limbs. Patients frequently have concomitant coronary, cerebrovascular or other peripheral arterial disease…

…and cardiovascular disease. Its relationship with cardiovascular risk is nonlinear: even light smoking carries a substantial proportion of the excess ischaemic heart disease risk associated…

…with significant heart disease, predominantly ischemic heart disease. However, most cardiac conditions may be associated with atrial flutter. As compared with several other supraventricular tachyarrhythmias…

…when recording during chest pain is not consistent with myocardial ischemia. In other words, chest pain caused by ischemia will always result in ischemic ST…

…two different sets of piezoelectric crystals; one set for sending ultrasound and the other for analyzing reflected sound waves. The cardinal difference between continuous wave…

…radiotracers emit positrons. When a positron collides with an electron, they annihilate each other, producing two gamma photons emitted in opposite directions. PET scanners detect…

…1 A ). Concave ST segment elevations, on the other hand, are much less likely to be caused by ischemia ( Figure 1 B ). This is noted…

…atrial impulses are conducted to the ventricles. The atria and the ventricles are electrically dissociated from each other. This condition is referred to as atrioventricular…