…NaCl 9 mg/mL) and a 20 mL syringe. Culture swab, microbiology request form. Drainage material: rubber dam drain, a strip cut from a glove…

…and thrombosis. Typical features include a lipid rich core, a thin fibrous cap, macrophage and foam cell accumulation, expansive or positive remodelling, neovascularization, plaque haemorrhage…

…droplets, transforming into characteristic foam cells. The accumulation of these foam cells forms the earliest macroscopically visible lesion of atherosclerosis: the fatty streak [5] . Ruptured…

…the endothelium. Plaques that are particularly prone to rupture characteristically contain: a large lipid rich core; abundant foam cells and macrophages; a thin fibrous cap;…

…smooth muscle cells, reducing cytokines like IL 6 and TNF α. 11 Plaque Stability: By reducing macrophage infiltration and inhibiting foam cell formation, they stabiliz

Cardiology Emergency medicine Surgery & trauma Definition and Pathophysiology Aortic dissection is a major form of acute aortic syndrome (AAS), alongside intramural haematoma, penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer…

Arrhythmias and arrhythmology Cardiology Definition and Pathophysiology Vasovagal syncope represents the most common form of neurally mediated syncope (NMS), a disorder of autonomic reflexes. It…

Procedurer Alkalinising the urine increases the excretion of weak acids by keeping them in a charged form in the tubular fluid, where they cannot be…

…Values $(document).ready(function() { $(" qtc form").on('submit', function(event) { event.preventDefault(); // Get form values var hr = parseFloat($(' heart rate').val…

…electrocardiogram (ECG), which predisposes the myocardium to a specific form of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) known as torsades de pointes (TdP). Drug induced LQTS and…

…precipitated by exertion, emotional stress, or another form of physiological stress, but it may also occur at rest or remain clinically silent. The underlying coronary…

…recurrent narrowing within a previously implanted coronary stent. It represents a form of arterial hyperplastic disease arising after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). In contemporary practice…

…active commuting and recreational activities. Exercise is a more structured form of physical activity undertaken to maintain or improve physical fitness. Regular physical activity is…

…potassium, and resistant to suppression by sodium loading. It is the most common form of secondary hypertension. Aldosterone acts principally through the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR)…

…which is synonymous with ischemic heart disease, is the most common form of cardiovascular disease. It has been the number one killer in Western and…

…de pointes, a specific form of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia characterized by irregular (polymorphic) QRS complexes that appear to twist around the isoelectric baseline. The risk…

…atrial electrical activity. This activity most commonly presents as a characteristic saw tooth pattern at rates typically exceeding 200 beats per minute. While ECG appearances…

…or other vascular beds. Malignant hypertension represents an extreme form in which acute microvascular injury occurs, classically involving fibrinoid necrosis of small arteries in the…

…myocardial infarction (STEMI), with rates approaching 25% after anterior MI. Thrombi may form early, within 48–72 hours of infarction. Early thrombus formation is associated…

…coronary microvascular dysfunction, also contributes to the extension and severity of ischemic injury. In its most severe form, known as no reflow, structural and functional…

…while cardiomyocyte swelling, interstitial oedema and tissue inflammation produce extravascular compression. In the most severe form, termed no reflow, structural and functional microvascular impairment persists…

…Complete intolerance is uncommon. Most patients who report intolerance can ultimately take some form of statin therapy after systematic reassessment and rechallenge. The principal manifestation…

…stent implantation should always be specified. Coronary arterial thrombi are predominantly platelet rich because they form under high shear conditions. Disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque…

…These cells form bundles of fibers that act as electrical cords that spread the action potential rapidly and sequentially to contractile myocardium in the atria…

…induced cardiomyopathy. In pediatric populations, a distinct form of atrial tachycardia may occur due to embryological remnants within the atrial myocardium. These residual tissues, persisting…

…identifiable underlying cause. Researchers previously believed that this form of hypertension was a physiological reaction that was necessary to maintain normal hemodynamics, hence the term…

…of specialized myocardial cells. Conduction cells form bundles of fibers that spread the action potential rapidly and sequentially to the contractile myocardium. When the contractile…

…metabolism. This is possible because cardiac myocytes store glycogen (a storage form of glucose) which can be used to produce ATP in absence of oxygen…

…When vocal cords vibrate, they generate vibrations in the surrounding air and these vibrations propagate in the form of a sound wave. If the sound…

…the pulmonary valve into the main pulmonary artery. Depending on the size and form of the thrombus, it will occlude the main pulmonary artery or…

…The conditions encircled by the term sinus node dysfunction are as follows: Sinus bradycardia (which in its purest form means that the automaticity is diminished)…

…energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. Blood flowing through the heart and…

…22 above 70 years, and reduced food intake together form the basis of most screening instruments and should prompt a nutritional assessment. See also unintentional…

…each time Always, once per patient if no valid result exists Type and screen (BAS test) Blood group confirmation and antibody screening. If the screen…

…weeks before if possible Inhaled and topical steroids Note them on the request form — they can themselves cause HPA suppression and are often the very…

…Clinical risk scores Validated clinical tools, including the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI), its simplified form, and the Hestia criteria, are used to assess clinical…

…high intensity statin therapy, and appropriate antithrombotic treatment form the broader management framework. Response to treatment should be reviewed after initiation and after each adjustment…

…of natriuretic peptides and cardiac troponin [19]. ATTR Amyloidosis: This form arises from the misfolding of transthyretin, a protein produced primarily in the liver [10…

…vascular calcification Albuminuria and proteinuria Neurohormonal activation Plasma volume expansion Myocardial remodelling and fibrosis These processes form part of the broader cardiovascular kidney metabolic syndrome…

…should be considered within a stepwise, target based lipid lowering strategy: Dietary and lifestyle interventions form the foundation of treatment. Statins are the preferred first…

…infarction [4]. Myocardial Necrosis : The occurrence of LBBB (as a form of bifascicular block) is linked to extensive myocardial necrosis [4]. Clinical Implications and Prognosis…

…with anterior infarction. Ventricular free wall rupture Free wall rupture may be catastrophic or subacute. In the catastrophic form, an acute tear causes haemopericardium, tamponade…

…hypertension (CTEPH) and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary disease Group 5: PH with unclear or multifactorial mechanisms PAH is a distinct and uncommon form of precapillary PH…

…amplitude and form of the E wave reflect the velocity and course of the flow. The main factors determining E wave velocity and form are…

…if more than one hour has elapsed post ingestion unless the ingested substance has the propensity to form bezoars or is a sustained release formulation…

…for decades, and it has been regarded as a benign form of ST segment elevation with slurring or notching at the J point. A notch…

…also occurs in children. It manifests in the form of sudden prolongations in the P P interval (without relation to respiration). Approximately half of all…

…once the exercise is stopped. Some experts believe that these ST segment depressions represent a benign form of subendocardial ischemia. Refer to Exercise Stress Testing…

…3] . By Duration: Non sustained VT (NSVT): Defined as three or more consecutive ventricular beats at a rate exceeding 100 beats per minute (bpm), which…