Cardiology Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Congestion is a central expression of the heart failure syndrome and reflects excessive retention of sodium and water, with…

Cardiology Clinical medicine Introduction Cardiovascular disease becomes increasingly prevalent with advancing age, while its clinical expression and management become progressively more complex. Older adults, often…

…Definition and pathophysiology Obesity is a chronic, relapsing and biologically complex disease characterized by excessive accumulation of adipose tissue. It is an important cause of…

…of cholesterol delivered to the liver. The resulting hepatic response includes increased expression of low density lipoprotein receptors (LDLRs), which enhances removal of circulating LDL…

…the rate limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis. Reduced hepatic cholesterol production increases hepatic LDL receptor expression, thereby enhancing removal of LDL particles from the circulation…

…Catapress TTS 3 (0.3 mg/24hrs) Dosage in renal failure and renal replacement therapy: Dose as in normal renal function Adverse effects Excessive sedation…

…occurred in 10–15% during the first year. The dominant mechanism was excessive intimal hyperplasia within the stent. Restenosis was more likely with: Small reference…

…incomplete penetrance and variable phenotypic expression complicate risk prediction. Familial clustering may also reflect shared environmental or behavioural factors rather than a single gene disorder…

…Recognised causes include: Diabetes and insulin resistance Thyroid disease Kidney disease Excessive alcohol consumption Diets high in carbohydrate or fat Glucocorticoids Beta blockers Oestrogen therapy…

…a key enzyme in cholesterol synthesis. Reduced hepatic cholesterol synthesis produces a compensatory increase in hepatic LDL receptor expression, accelerating clearance of circulating LDL particles…

…interfering RNA (siRNA) agent inclisiran. The magnitude of LDL C lowering depends partly on residual LDL receptor expression. PCSK9 monoclonal antibodies are less effective in…

…PA), also termed primary hyperaldosteronism or Conn syndrome, comprises disorders in which aldosterone secretion is inappropriately increased, relatively autonomous from angiotensin II and plasma potassium…

…PR interval, while leaving the QRS duration largely unchanged. Continuous ECG monitoring is mandated during hospital initiation to detect excessive QT prolongation, proarrhythmia, and severe…

…rupture with tamponade, and less common causes such as severe pre existing valvular disease or excessive beta blocker or calcium channel blocker exposure. The incidence…

…weight × min. Metabolic equivalents are used because the concept offers an easy way of expressing the energy cost of any exercise. The energy cost is…

…Hence, right ventricular hypertrophy must be pronounced in order to come to the expression on ECG. Moderate right ventricular hypertrophy may not alter the ECG…

…adrenergic agonists). In all of these conditions, sinus tachycardia is merely an expression of an underlying disease or substance effect, which may require attention. Therefore…

…compromises the endothelial barrier, upregulating the expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM 1) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM 1), and increasing the…

…must not be given uncontrolled simply because the patient feels breathless. Excessive oxygen delivery can raise pCO₂. The main mechanisms are impaired ventilation–perfusion matching…

…radiolucent, tolerates moisture better, more expensive and stiffer to mould Elastic bandage Holds the slab in place; wound on without tension Tepid water, plastic gloves…

…The condition occurs above all in: treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors pregnancy prolonged fasting or a very low carbohydrate intake excessive alcohol consumption vomiting or othe

…present). High voltage (excessive amplitudes) is present if the S wave in V1 or V2 + the R wave in V5 is 35 mm. Q waves…

…Contraindications Atrial fibrillation or flutter of unknown or excessive duration without adequate anticoagulation or exclusion of thrombus — the most important relative contraindication to elective cardioversion…

…Thus, “disease” refers to the underlying coronary pathology, whereas “syndrome” describes its clinical expression. Clinical presentation and symptoms Clinical presentation is heterogeneous. Patients may have…

…presentation is heterogeneous. AF may be well tolerated, particularly when the ventricular response is not excessive, or may cause substantial haemodynamic compromise. Symptoms and consequences…

…a contraindication, an indication for oral anticoagulation, or an excessive risk of bleeding. The duration and intensity may be modified according to: bleeding risk; ischemic…

…target of rapamycin complex 1 signalling, thereby reducing inflammatory mediator expression and glycolytic activity in relevant renal and cardiovascular cells. These cellular mechanisms remain proposed…

…7 ). The explanation for this is as follows: The vector resulting from activation of the right ventricle does not come to expression , because it is…

…discomfort. Dyspnoea. Reduced exercise tolerance. Excessive fatigue. These non chest pain manifestations are reported more frequently in females, older adults and people with diabetes. Ischaemic…

…severe disturbance of ventricular repolarization, which usually prevents other ST T changes (such as those arising from ischemia) to come to expression on ECG. Therefore…

…objects in the image whiter. This may clarify some tissue borders but excessive use of gain results in deterioration of image quality. Time gain compensation …