…disease, particularly diabetic kidney disease and advanced CKD. The clinical course is often more rapidly reversible than that of other forms of acute tubular necrosis…

Procedurer The test measures the ability of the adrenal cortex to respond to maximal ACTH stimulation, and it is rarely the injection itself that determines…

…angina pectoris. The location of the pain beneath the xiphoid and epigastrium, combined with patient denial, often leads to a mistaken impression of indigestion. STEMI…

…of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). The threshold is not absolute: patient phenotype, risk factors for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, echocardiographic findings, and left…

…Complete intolerance is uncommon. Most patients who report intolerance can ultimately take some form of statin therapy after systematic reassessment and rechallenge. The principal manifestation…

…in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). They are also recommended in patients within one year of MI and in those with LVEF…

…is confined to the left ventricle. ARVC causes ventricular tachycardia and sudden cardiac arrest; the disease is one of the most common causes of sudden…

…trauma Definition and Pathophysiology Aortic dissection is a major form of acute aortic syndrome (AAS), alongside intramural haematoma, penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer, aortic pseudoaneurysm and traumatic…

…than confined to a single lesion. Consequently, local revascularization must be accompanied by systemic treatment aimed at stabilizing the broader atherosclerotic disease. Pathophysiology Mechanisms of…

…reentry. In the common form of typical atrial flutter, the reentrant circuit is confined to the right atrium and travels in a counterclockwise direction. The…

Myocardial ischemia and infarction Pharmacology & dosing Definition and pathophysiology Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) is the combined use of aspirin and an oral P2Y12 receptor inhibitor…

…Postoperative hypertension. Mechanism of action Combined beta adrenergic and alpha adrenergic blocker with rapid onset of action. Labetalol has less antihypertensive efficacy as compared with…

…Nitroprusside Figure 1. The approximate position of each drug according to its vasoconstrictor effect (vertical axis) and its positive inotropic effect (horizontal axis). Grey =…

…Several endogenous and synthetic agents exist and are frequently combined to achieve the desired hemodynamic outcome. Most agents exhibit both vasopressor and inotropic effects (Figure…

…and Pathophysiology Sotalol is a nonselective beta adrenoceptor blocker devoid of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity that also prolongs cardiac repolarization, thereby exerting combined class II and…

…to assess left ventricular systolic function. These methods elucidate slightly different aspects of systolic function and their combined use allows for careful mapping of systolic…

…Several endogenous and synthetic agents exist and are frequently combined to achieve the desired hemodynamic outcome. Most agents exhibit both vasopressor and inotropic effects (Figure…

…recurrent malignant effusion (often combined with pleurodesis), and in chest trauma and postoperatively. Emergency needle decompression: a clinical suspicion of tension pneumothorax in a haemodynamically…

…heart failure, kidney or liver disease, especially when combined with diuretics (risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive…

…of foods habitually consumed rather than isolated nutrients considered independently. For cardiometabolic health, the most favourable patterns generally contain more minimally processed, fibre rich and…

…flow and myocardial flow reserve with PET. Evaluate myocardial viability, particularly when combined with metabolic imaging. Contribute to assessment of cardiac inflammation, infective endocarditis, and…

…including chronic coronary syndromes and acute coronary syndromes HF across the spectrum of left ventricular ejection fraction AF and other arrhythmias Ischaemic stroke PAD CKD…

…waves are tall and narrow at the top. Refer to Figure 1 . Patients with left ventricular hypertrophy may instead display normalization of secondary T wave…

…M mode is commonly used to complement the examination of the following structures: Left ventricular (LV) dimension and function. Right ventricular (RV) dimension and function…

…to the left of the sternum, the other on the back between the left scapula and the spine. The anterolateral position also works and is…

…disease, aspirin reduced the combined incidence of non fatal MI, non fatal ischaemic stroke, and vascular death from 8.2% to 6.7% per year…

…atherosclerotic plaque, and the severity and distribution of coronary stenosis. Modern cardiac CT can acquire a three dimensional cardiac dataset within approximately 5–15 seconds…

…clinical presentation and other findings. A reduced CFR may occur with angiographically insignificant epicardial disease because of abnormalities in the coronary resistance vessels. Left ventricular…

…sinus rhythm and a heart rate above 70 beats/min. The reduction in the combined outcome of cardiovascular death or heart failure hospitalisation was related…

…reflects the concentration of circulating atherogenic particles because each apoB containing particle carries one apoB molecule. LDL C, non HDL C and apoB are usually…

…Advanced ECG interpretation, combined with clinical assessment and imaging modalities, has been shown to improve the identification of these patients. Although current (2025) guidelines continue…

…minority of intermediate lesions. Over the past three decades, invasive physiological indices, led by fractional flow reserve (FFR), have been validated against outcomes and shown…

…ventricular function and the anticipated benefit–risk balance of revascularization. Coronary angiography remains primarily an anatomical examination, whereas contemporary decision making increasingly combines anatomical imaging…

…principally by neointimal hyperplasia. Contemporary DES combine a metallic scaffold, a polymeric or polymer free drug delivery system, and an antiproliferative agent. Their development has…

…medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease. It combines a structured family history…

…ischaemia and to estimate prognosis in patients with suspected or established coronary artery disease (CAD). It combines echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular (LV) structure and…

…the full range of left ventricular ejection fraction and may result from systolic dysfunction, diastolic dysfunction, or both. The clinical consequences of extracellular volume expansion…

…95% of healthy individuals, whereas sensitive, but not high sensitivity, assays detect troponin in approximately 20–50%. Their greater analytical sensitivity improves diagnostic accuracy and…

…risk factors or an elevated estimated risk. It combines lifestyle intervention with treatment of risk factors when indicated. Risk estimation is particularly important when deciding…

…of missing important abnormalities and also speeds up the ECG interpretation. Press the Download button to download the pocket guide. Download Become a member and…

…that ligation of the left anterior descending artery in dogs resulted in myoardial infarction. An important discovery was reported in 1930 when Buchner and colleages…

…approximately one third of patients with inferior infarction. Extensive involvement is less common in patients with inferoposterior left ventricular infarction, while infarction confined predominantly to…

…al it was reported that early repolarization was associated with 3–5 times as great a risk of idiopathic ventricular fibrillation and sudden cardiac arrest…

…efficacy of compressions and defibrillation diminishes considerably. Extracorporeal Life Support (ECLS) emerges as the sole therapeutic alternative for such situations. Presently, this treatment is confined…

…inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction, immune cell recruitment, extracellular matrix remodelling, and thrombosis interact to produce focal…

…increases in heart rate, myocardial contractility and blood pressure. When coronary blood flow cannot increase adequately because of flow limiting disease, myocardial ischaemia may develop…

…readers regardless of their previous training and profession. Read Dr Rawshani's book Below follows a review, compiled by Dr Araz Rawshani, of the most…