…risk factors The principal determinant of risk is baseline renal function. The risk is increased by: CKD, especially advanced CKD; diabetic kidney disease; older age…

…Predisposing factors The likelihood of SAMS increases with higher statin doses and with several patient and treatment related factors: Age older than 80 years Female…

…is not uniformly present. The proportion of painless or silent STEMIs is greater in patients with diabetes mellitus and increases with age. STEMI may present…

…or multifactorial mechanisms PAH is a distinct and uncommon form of precapillary PH. It is defined haemodynamically by precapillary PH in the absence of CTEPH…

…Recessive forms exist, although they are rare (Naxos disease, Carvajal syndrome). The prevalence of ARVC is between 0.02 and 0.05% in Europe (Corrado…

Procedurer The test measures the ability of the adrenal cortex to respond to maximal ACTH stimulation, and it is rarely the injection itself that determines…

…CCS. General strategy For most patients, initial therapy consists of a beta blocker and/or a calcium channel blocker (CCB). If symptoms remain inadequately controlled…

Cardiology Emergency medicine Surgery & trauma Definition and Pathophysiology Aortic dissection is a major form of acute aortic syndrome (AAS), alongside intramural haematoma, penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer…

…than confined to a single lesion. Consequently, local revascularization must be accompanied by systemic treatment aimed at stabilizing the broader atherosclerotic disease. Pathophysiology Mechanisms of…

…reentry. In the common form of typical atrial flutter, the reentrant circuit is confined to the right atrium and travels in a counterclockwise direction. The…

…therapy (DAPT) is the combined use of aspirin and an oral P2Y12 receptor inhibitor. It is central to the prevention of platelet mediated coronary thrombosis…

…Postoperative hypertension. Mechanism of action Combined beta adrenergic and alpha adrenergic blocker with rapid onset of action. Labetalol has less antihypertensive efficacy as compared with…

…with inotropic and vasopressor effects, and they often need to be combined in order to optimise or correct the haemodynamics. Most agents exert both vasopressor…

…cardiac contractile force (contractility). Several endogenous and synthetic agents exist and are frequently combined to achieve the desired hemodynamic outcome. Most agents exhibit both vasopressor…

…is a nonselective beta adrenoceptor blocker devoid of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity that also prolongs cardiac repolarization, thereby exerting combined class II and class III antiarrhythmic…

…ventricular systolic function. These methods elucidate slightly different aspects of systolic function and their combined use allows for careful mapping of systolic function. It is…

…cardiac contractile force (contractility). Several endogenous and synthetic agents exist and are frequently combined to achieve the desired hemodynamic outcome. Most agents exhibit both vasopressor…

…recurrent malignant effusion (often combined with pleurodesis), and in chest trauma and postoperatively. Emergency needle decompression: a clinical suspicion of tension pneumothorax in a haemodynamically…

…heart failure, kidney or liver disease, especially when combined with diuretics (risk of fluid retention and impaired kidney function). Patients with bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive…

…from whole grains. These combined effects may improve inflammation, insulin resistance, glucose metabolism, hypertension, atherogenic dyslipidaemia, endothelial biology and platelet related pathways. The source material…

…flow reserve with PET. Evaluate myocardial viability, particularly when combined with metabolic imaging. Contribute to assessment of cardiac inflammation, infective endocarditis, and cardiac amyloidosis using…

…CKD), which itself promotes cardiovascular disease and amplifies cardiovascular and all cause mortality. The excess risk is mediated by the combined effects of hyperglycaemia, hypertension…

…exhibit combined electrolyte imbalance. The ECG may be used to estimate the severity of electrolyte imbalances and to judge whether there is a risk of…

…can be combined with Doppler techniques (Color Doppler, Tissue Doppler). Usage of M mode M mode is commonly used to complement the examination of the…

…bundle branch block in acute anterior infarction, and before drugs or procedures with a known risk of bradycardia. Transvenous pacing is chosen when the need…

…and harms In secondary prevention trials involving patients with previous vascular disease, aspirin reduced the combined incidence of non fatal MI, non fatal ischaemic stroke…

…atherosclerotic plaque, and the severity and distribution of coronary stenosis. Modern cardiac CT can acquire a three dimensional cardiac dataset within approximately 5–15 seconds…

…and FFR interrogate related but distinct components of coronary physiology: FFR is predominantly a pressure derived index of the functional effect of an epicardial stenosis…

…beats/min. The reduction in the combined outcome of cardiovascular death or heart failure hospitalisation was related to the magnitude of heart rate reduction. Ivabradine…

…dL). The proportional reduction in cardiovascular risk is related to the absolute reduction in LDL C, regardless of the drug used to achieve it. Absolute…

…Advanced ECG interpretation, combined with clinical assessment and imaging modalities, has been shown to improve the identification of these patients. Although current (2025) guidelines continue…

…combined epicardial + microvascular resistance. IMR: distal pressure × hyperemic mean transit time — isolates microvascular resistance. Only indices that detect microvascular disease as an independent cause of…

…whereas contemporary decision making increasingly combines anatomical imaging with functional assessment. A central practical principle is that the visual severity of a stenosis does not…

…and lower thrombogenicity. Stent thrombosis Early metallic stents reduced acute closure but introduced the risk of thrombosis related to the intravascular foreign body. First generation…

…medicine is the systematic assessment of relatives and other individuals who may carry an inherited predisposition to cardiovascular disease. It combines a structured family history…

…coronary artery disease (CAD). It combines echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular (LV) structure and function with exercise or pharmacological stress. The physiological basis is an…

…congestion may be important mechanisms. Diuretics relieve the hemodynamic consequences of congestion by producing a negative sodium and water balance. They can reduce jugular venous…

…from injured cardiomyocytes at substantially lower concentrations than earlier generation assays. They can identify troponin concentrations in approximately 50–95% of healthy individuals, whereas sensitive…

…risk factors or an elevated estimated risk. It combines lifestyle intervention with treatment of risk factors when indicated. Risk estimation is particularly important when deciding…

…perform systematic interpretation may actually be detrimental. We have therefore compiled a pocket guide with a universal interpretation algorithm. These 22 pages includes all you…

…term ischemia was coined in 1858 by Virchow (the same Virchow who unraveled thrombosis). He used te term to describe a reduction of blood flow…

…approximately one third of patients with inferior infarction. Extensive involvement is less common in patients with inferoposterior left ventricular infarction, while infarction confined predominantly to…

…believed that early repolarization was a benign condition, which is why the term benign early repolarization was coined. This notion was overturned in 2008 when…

…efficacy of compressions and defibrillation diminishes considerably. Extracorporeal Life Support (ECLS) emerges as the sole therapeutic alternative for such situations. Presently, this treatment is confined…

Cardiology Myocardial ischemia and infarction Definition and pathophysiology Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the arterial wall in which lipid accumulation, vascular cell dysfunction…

…Reproduction and characterization of symptoms Heart rate and blood pressure responses to exercise Detection of exercise induced arrhythmias Identification of exercise related ST segment changes…

…readers regardless of their previous training and profession. Read Dr Rawshani's book Below follows a review, compiled by Dr Araz Rawshani, of the most…