…used in therapeutic studies of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). The threshold is not absolute: patient phenotype, risk factors for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction…

…of a coronary artery from the pulmonary artery can result in reduced coronary oxygen content, coronary steal, and myocardial ischaemia. Coronary fistulae create an abnormal…

…results in blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle during diastole. The most common cause of abnormal pulmonary regurgitation is pulmonary…

…events in the setting of a stent thrombosis or restenosis. Type 1 myocardial infarction Definition and pathophysiology Type 1 MI results from acute coronary atherothrombosis…

ECG Introduction to ECG interpretation The QRS complex (ventricular complex): normal and abnormal configurations and intervals A complete QRS complex consists of a Q , R…

…impulses generated in the ventricles will result in wide QRS complexes because the impulse will spread entirely or partly outside of the conduction system (which…

Cardiology Interpreting myocardial perfusion SPECT images involves a systematic comparison of rest and stress images to assess myocardial ischemia and infarction. The key steps in…

…to the QRS morphology during LBBB. Stimulation in other regions of the ventricle may result in a different QRS morphology. If the lead tip is…

…women, respectively, should be considered abnormal. A common cause of abnormally large T waves is hyperkalemia, which results in high, pointed and asymmetric T waves…

…platelets and coagulation factors, which results in thrombus formation (Figure 1). Disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque may also release atherosclerotic debris downstream, causing microvascular embolization…

…in the myocardium. The electrical potential difference exists between ischemic and normal myocardium and it results in displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment…

…simultaneously as the cause of the arrhythmia already affects cellular function. This results in electrical instability which explains why ventricular tachycardia may progress to ventricular…

…which death occurs before biomarkers can be obtained or become abnormal, in the presence of symptoms suggestive of ischaemia and presumed new ischaemic ECG changes…

…favorable neurological recovery exhibited an abnormal pupillary reflex upon initial examination. Notably, 31.2% of patients discharged with intact neurological function were observed to lack…

…due to diminished automaticity (pacemaker function) in the sinoatrial node or conduction defects (e.g. second degree AV block) as a result of ischemia/infarction…

…Significant hypertrophy may result in abnormal depolarization of the ventricular myocardium. This is presumably due to a mismatch between the expansion of contractile cells as…

…is myocardial ischaemia caused by transient abnormal vasoconstriction of one or more coronary arteries. Epicardial spasm produces a reversible functional occlusion and usually causes transmural…

…by itself identify the cause. The result must always be weighed together with the clinical picture, medication, fluid balance, renal function, electrolytes and supplemental oxygen…

…part of the initial stroke assessment [1]. Treat immediately when there are symptoms and a low glucose. Do not wait for the venous laboratory result…

…leads [7]. These stricter parameters correlate more closely with abnormal LV mechanical function and the potential benefit of resynchronization pacemaker therapy [7]. R Wave Peak…

…stratification and prognosis For patients with low or moderate pre test likelihood of obstructive CAD, CCTA or functional imaging should generally be preferred when available…

…failure may occur in the context of acute myocardial ischaemia, though abnormal cardiac troponin (cTn) values in the setting of acute or chronic heart failure…

…Hypocalcemia Causes of hypocalcemia Acute pancreatitis, pancreas surgery, alkalosis (hyperventilation), rhabdomyolysis, septicemia (sepsis), osteolytic cancer metastases, abnormal calcium absorption (gastrointestinal) and resorption (from primary urine…

…of the coronary microcirculation. Microvascular angina reflects myocardial ischaemia caused by structural or functional microvascular abnormalities, impaired coronary flow reserve, reduced microcirculatory conductance, or abnormal…

…patient to recite the months of the year backwards. A normal result does not exclude delirium, however, and an abnormal result is not specific to…

…within the AV node, further slowing the transmission of impulses. Intense parasympathetic activity can result in a complete blockage of impulse conduction. If such blockage…

…T wave should be included in the measurement. This may result in an overestimation of the QT interval. If the patient uses QT prolonging drugs…

Diastolic function Criteria Normal, young Normal, adult Abnormal relaxation (grade 1 dysfunction) Pseudonormal (grade 2 dysfunction) Reversible restrictive filling (grade 3 dysfunction) Irreversible restrictive filling…

…regurgitation Severe regurgitation Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow…

…size and volume Women Men Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal ATRIAL DIMENSIONS LA diameter…

…regurgitation Severe regurgitation Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow…

…characterised by an abnormal prolongation of the QT interval on the surface electrocardiogram (ECG), which predisposes the myocardium to a specific form of polymorphic ventricular…

…acute myocardial infarction, pericarditis/myocarditis or pulmonary embolism is often a reversible arrhythmia with low risk of recurrence. Atrial fibrillation in other circumstances (particularly those…

…function. The tests that reflect the synthetic function of the liver are the prothrombin time (INR) , the albumin and the bilirubin — and they become abnormal…

…LV aneurysm formation, and reduced LV systolic function. The principal mechanisms are the combination of an abnormal thrombogenic endocardial surface and blood stasis. During the…

…at a rate exceeding that of the sinoatrial (SA) node. This enhanced atrial activity is most commonly attributable to abnormal automaticity or re entry mechanisms…

…as a lubricant that prevents friction during ventricular contraction and relaxation. Pericardial effusion is the presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the pericardial…

…defect): constellations of bundle branch blocks and fascicular blocks (hemiblocks) This chapter discusses intraventricular conduction delays (defects), which are caused by functional or anatomical defects…

…complexes are indications of previous myocardial infarction. There are imaging studies demonstrating that QRS fragmentation is more common than the development of pathological Q waves…

…ventricles will spread abnormally (because the impulse did not enter the ventricles through the bundle of His). Abnormal depolarization will consequently lead to abnormal repolarization…

…abnormal renal/liver function, stroke history, bleeding history, labile INR, age 65, and concomitant drug/alcohol use. Some studies suggest HAS BLED has comparable or…

…Ejection fraction, % 55 45–54 30–44 <30 55 45–54 30–44 <30 2D, Two dimensional. Ejection fraction (EF) Normal Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal…

…of atrial size 4 10 cm² or 20 40% of atrial size 10 cm² or 40% of atrial size Jet orientation central variable excentric Pulmonary…

…Note that 10% of wide complex tachycardias actually originate from the atria but the QRS complexes become wide due to abnormal ventricular depolarization (e.g…

…Recognition of this syndrome is critical because it may precede haemodynamic collapse. Clinical risk scores Validated clinical tools, including the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI…

…associated with acute haemodynamic compromise, pulmonary oedema, or evidence of coronary ischaemia. These findings determine the urgency and type of intervention. The assessment should also…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

…left ventricular hypertrophy or abnormal LV filling supports the diagnosis Unlike HFpEF, objective evidence of structural or functional cardiac abnormality or raised natriuretic peptides is…

…been described in HFpEF, while nitrosative stress and abnormalities of cellular and molecular myocardial function may further impair contraction and relaxation. Structural and vascular consequences…

…structural or functional abnormalities of the coronary microcirculation. These abnormalities may impair coronary flow reserve (CFR), reduce microcirculatory conductance, or cause abnormal vasoconstriction of coronary…

…to ECG interpretation 1. Which of the following ECG findings is typically considered a normal variant in asymptomatic athletes with no significant family history? A:…

…risk must be considered alongside thromboembolic risk. The HAS BLED score includes hypertension, abnormal renal or liver function, prior stroke, bleeding tendency or previous bleeding…

…the ECG is normal or abnormal. Although heart rhythm will be discussed in detail in the next chapters, fundamental aspects of rhythm will also be…

…considered abnormal. On the other hand, sinus bradycardia developing during physical exercise is considered abnormal, because heart rate must increase during exercise. Mechanisms of cardiac…

…an anatomical or functional dysfunction in the right bundle branch, such that the electrical impulse is blocked. Figure 1 illustrates the components of the ventricular…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction T wave changes in acute myocardial infarction & ischemia A thorough discussion regarding the physiology of the T wavewas previously provided…

…entirely outside of the ventricular conduction system, and thus the ventricular depolarization is slow (yielding a wide QRS complex). Because the ventricular depolarization is abnormal…

…arrhythmic origin. Assessment of rate control in atrial fibrillation. Suspected paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, including after cryptogenic stroke. Evaluation of antiarrhythmic treatment or pacemaker function. Suspected…

…regurgitation Severe regurgitation Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow…

…ATTR CA typically present as heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), and a multitude of clinical symptoms cannot reliably distinguish AL from ATTR CA…