…depolarizes the ventricles) passes through the bundle of His, and hence it originates in the atria. In other words: tachycardias with narrow QRS complexes originate…

…potentially indicating microvascular dysfunction or other pathologies. The software allows for detailed regional analysis of myocardial perfusion, highlighting specific segments of the left ventricle that…

…to the QRS morphology during LBBB. Stimulation in other regions of the ventricle may result in a different QRS morphology. If the lead tip is…

…events in the setting of a stent thrombosis or restenosis. Type 1 myocardial infarction Definition and pathophysiology Type 1 MI results from acute coronary atherothrombosis…

…platelets and coagulation factors, which results in thrombus formation (Figure 1). Disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque may also release atherosclerotic debris downstream, causing microvascular embolization…

…women, respectively, should be considered abnormal. A common cause of abnormally large T waves is hyperkalemia, which results in high, pointed and asymmetric T waves…

…in the myocardium. The electrical potential difference exists between ischemic and normal myocardium and it results in displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment…

…simultaneously as the cause of the arrhythmia already affects cellular function. This results in electrical instability which explains why ventricular tachycardia may progress to ventricular…

ECG Introduction to ECG interpretation The QRS complex (ventricular complex): normal and abnormal configurations and intervals A complete QRS complex consists of a Q , R…

…favorable neurological recovery exhibited an abnormal pupillary reflex upon initial examination. Notably, 31.2% of patients discharged with intact neurological function were observed to lack…

…This is also a normal finding. Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia In all other situations, sinus bradycardia should be regarded as a pathological finding…

…formerly termed Prinzmetal or variant angina, is myocardial ischaemia caused by transient abnormal vasoconstriction of one or more coronary arteries. Epicardial spasm produces a reversible…

…Coronary fistulae represent abnormal communications between a coronary artery and a cardiac chamber or vessel. Other congenital anomalies include anomalous origin of a coronary artery…

…part of the initial stroke assessment [1]. Treat immediately when there are symptoms and a low glucose. Do not wait for the venous laboratory result…

…by itself identify the cause. The result must always be weighed together with the clinical picture, medication, fluid balance, renal function, electrolytes and supplemental oxygen…

…or abnormal arteriolar vasoconstriction. More than one mechanism may coexist. Supply–demand mismatch MINOCA may result from a mismatch between myocardial oxygen supply and demand…

…failure may occur in the context of acute myocardial ischaemia, though abnormal cardiac troponin (cTn) values in the setting of acute or chronic heart failure…

…patient to recite the months of the year backwards. A normal result does not exclude delirium, however, and an abnormal result is not specific to…

…Hypocalcemia Causes of hypocalcemia Acute pancreatitis, pancreas surgery, alkalosis (hyperventilation), rhabdomyolysis, septicemia (sepsis), osteolytic cancer metastases, abnormal calcium absorption (gastrointestinal) and resorption (from primary urine…

…The regurgitation results in blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle during diastole. The most common cause of abnormal pulmonary regurgitation…

…pulmonary arterial remodelling, with fibroproliferative, plexogenic, and sometimes thrombotic changes that may result in near total obliteration of affected vessels. Genetic, molecular, and acquired factors…

…which death occurs before biomarkers can be obtained or become abnormal, in the presence of symptoms suggestive of ischaemia and presumed new ischaemic ECG changes…

…Significant hypertrophy may result in abnormal depolarization of the ventricular myocardium. This is presumably due to a mismatch between the expansion of contractile cells as…

…leads [7]. These stricter parameters correlate more closely with abnormal LV mechanical function and the potential benefit of resynchronization pacemaker therapy [7]. R Wave Peak…

…exercise capacity, an abnormal blood pressure response or ventricular arrhythmias. A fall in systolic blood pressure, particularly when accompanied by evidence of ischaemia, may indicate…

…within the AV node, further slowing the transmission of impulses. Intense parasympathetic activity can result in a complete blockage of impulse conduction. If such blockage…

…T wave should be included in the measurement. This may result in an overestimation of the QT interval. If the patient uses QT prolonging drugs…

Diastolic function Criteria Normal, young Normal, adult Abnormal relaxation (grade 1 dysfunction) Pseudonormal (grade 2 dysfunction) Reversible restrictive filling (grade 3 dysfunction) Irreversible restrictive filling…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…size and volume Women Men Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal ATRIAL DIMENSIONS LA diameter…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…characterised by an abnormal prolongation of the QT interval on the surface electrocardiogram (ECG), which predisposes the myocardium to a specific form of polymorphic ventricular…

…ventricular rate (beta blockers being the mainstay of this therapy). Rate control does not affect the rhythm per se . Rhythm control, on the other hand…

…with the other tests normal is most often enzyme induction by alcohol or drugs and is often of no clinical significance. Synthetic function and prognosis…

…LV aneurysm formation, and reduced LV systolic function. The principal mechanisms are the combination of an abnormal thrombogenic endocardial surface and blood stasis. During the…

…at a rate exceeding that of the sinoatrial (SA) node. This enhanced atrial activity is most commonly attributable to abnormal automaticity or re entry mechanisms…

…cardiac tamponade. The classical signs of cardiac tamponade are hypotension, muffled heart sounds and jugular venous distention. Other frequent symptoms are pulsus paradoxus, pericardial friction…

…disturbance in ventricular activation will reduce the efficiency of the pumping function. The primary ECG manifestations of conduction defects are prolonged QRS complexes and altered…

…ischemia. Inverted U waves are even more typical of ischemia (but the sensitivity is low). U wave changes always accompany other ischemic ST T changes…

…a premature ventricular contraction. Classification of premature ventricular contractions When every other beat on the ECG is a premature ventricular complex (PVC), the rhythm is…

…abnormal renal/liver function, stroke history, bleeding history, labile INR, age 65, and concomitant drug/alcohol use. Some studies suggest HAS BLED has comparable or…

…Left ventricular function (ejection fraction) Women Men Normal Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal Normal Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal LINEAR METHOD Endocardial fractional…

…Gonzalo; Baumgartner, Helmut et al. (2012): Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). In European heart journal 33 (19), pp. 2451–2496…

…Note that 10% of wide complex tachycardias actually originate from the atria but the QRS complexes become wide due to abnormal ventricular depolarization (e.g…

…pulmonary vascular obstruction is accompanied by limited cardiopulmonary reserve or other adverse comorbidity. The classification of acute PE comprises four clinically useful groups: High risk…

…itself. It may cause symptoms and impaired quality of life, contribute to heart failure, and increase the risk of stroke and other thromboembolic events. Subclinical…

…Moderate or severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) Hypertension mediated organ damage (HMOD) Probable or definite familial hypercholesterolaemia Other markedly abnormal single risk factors or genetic…

…prognosis. Pathophysiology The defining physiological abnormality is heart failure occurring with mildly impaired LV systolic function. The syndrome remains fundamentally one of impaired cardiac performance…

…been described in HFpEF, while nitrosative stress and abnormalities of cellular and molecular myocardial function may further impair contraction and relaxation. Structural and vascular consequences…

…metabolic abnormalities; and abnormal pain perception in patients without demonstrable ischaemia. The absence of obstructive disease therefore does not establish a benign diagnosis. ANOCA/INOCA…

…to ECG interpretation 1. Which of the following ECG findings is typically considered a normal variant in asymptomatic athletes with no significant family history? A:…

…risk must be considered alongside thromboembolic risk. The HAS BLED score includes hypertension, abnormal renal or liver function, prior stroke, bleeding tendency or previous bleeding…

…the ECG is normal or abnormal. Although heart rhythm will be discussed in detail in the next chapters, fundamental aspects of rhythm will also be…

…considered abnormal. On the other hand, sinus bradycardia developing during physical exercise is considered abnormal, because heart rate must increase during exercise. Mechanisms of cardiac…

…part of the QRS complex as an R’ wave (pronounced "R prime"), which is directed anteriorly and rightward. Due to the abnormal depolarization sequence of…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction T wave changes in acute myocardial infarction & ischemia A thorough discussion regarding the physiology of the T wavewas previously provided…

…entirely outside of the ventricular conduction system, and thus the ventricular depolarization is slow (yielding a wide QRS complex). Because the ventricular depolarization is abnormal…

…arrhythmic origin. Assessment of rate control in atrial fibrillation. Suspected paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, including after cryptogenic stroke. Evaluation of antiarrhythmic treatment or pacemaker function. Suspected…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…which abnormal plasma cells produce misfolded immunoglobulin light chains [8, 19]. Light chains are directly toxic to cardiomyocytes, inducing the elaboration of high levels of…