…factors Inattention is central. A simple check is to ask the patient to recite the months of the year backwards. A normal result does not…

…simultaneously as the cause of the arrhythmia already affects cellular function. This results in electrical instability which explains why ventricular tachycardia may progress to ventricular…

…used in therapeutic studies of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). The threshold is not absolute: patient phenotype, risk factors for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction…

…to the QRS morphology during LBBB. Stimulation in other regions of the ventricle may result in a different QRS morphology. If the lead tip is…

…favorable neurological recovery exhibited an abnormal pupillary reflex upon initial examination. Notably, 31.2% of patients discharged with intact neurological function were observed to lack…

…Significant hypertrophy may result in abnormal depolarization of the ventricular myocardium. This is presumably due to a mismatch between the expansion of contractile cells as…

…due to diminished automaticity (pacemaker function) in the sinoatrial node or conduction defects (e.g. second degree AV block) as a result of ischemia/infarction…

…is myocardial ischaemia caused by transient abnormal vasoconstriction of one or more coronary arteries. Epicardial spasm produces a reversible functional occlusion and usually causes transmural…

…by itself identify the cause. The result must always be weighed together with the clinical picture, medication, fluid balance, renal function, electrolytes and supplemental oxygen…

…leads [7]. These stricter parameters correlate more closely with abnormal LV mechanical function and the potential benefit of resynchronization pacemaker therapy [7]. R Wave Peak…

…of a coronary artery from the pulmonary artery can result in reduced coronary oxygen content, coronary steal, and myocardial ischaemia. Coronary fistulae create an abnormal…

…stratification and prognosis For patients with low or moderate pre test likelihood of obstructive CAD, CCTA or functional imaging should generally be preferred when available…

…of the coronary microcirculation. Microvascular angina reflects myocardial ischaemia caused by structural or functional microvascular abnormalities, impaired coronary flow reserve, reduced microcirculatory conductance, or abnormal…

ECG Introduction to ECG interpretation The QRS complex (ventricular complex): normal and abnormal configurations and intervals A complete QRS complex consists of a Q , R…

…in the ventricles will result in wide QRS complexes because the impulse will spread entirely or partly outside of the conduction system (which is slow…

Cardiology Interpreting myocardial perfusion SPECT images involves a systematic comparison of rest and stress images to assess myocardial ischemia and infarction. The key steps in…

…events in the setting of a stent thrombosis or restenosis. Type 1 myocardial infarction Definition and pathophysiology Type 1 MI results from acute coronary atherothrombosis…

…The regurgitation results in blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle during diastole. The most common cause of abnormal pulmonary regurgitation…

…women, respectively, should be considered abnormal. A common cause of abnormally large T waves is hyperkalemia, which results in high, pointed and asymmetric T waves…

…platelets and coagulation factors, which results in thrombus formation (Figure 1). Disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque may also release atherosclerotic debris downstream, causing microvascular embolization…

…in the myocardium. The electrical potential difference exists between ischemic and normal myocardium and it results in displacement of the ST segment. The ST segment…

…by itself establish the mechanism. Increased concentrations may result from acute coronary atherothrombosis, oxygen supply–demand imbalance, direct myocardial injury, systemic illness, structural heart disease…

…part of the initial stroke assessment [1]. Treat immediately when there are symptoms and a low glucose. Do not wait for the venous laboratory result…

…failure may occur in the context of acute myocardial ischaemia, though abnormal cardiac troponin (cTn) values in the setting of acute or chronic heart failure…

…Hypocalcemia Causes of hypocalcemia Acute pancreatitis, pancreas surgery, alkalosis (hyperventilation), rhabdomyolysis, septicemia (sepsis), osteolytic cancer metastases, abnormal calcium absorption (gastrointestinal) and resorption (from primary urine…

…system, which transmit electrical impulses from the atria to the ventricles. Conduction through the AV node is intentionally slow (due to the low concentration of…

…T wave should be included in the measurement. This may result in an overestimation of the QT interval. If the patient uses QT prolonging drugs…

Diastolic function Criteria Normal, young Normal, adult Abnormal relaxation (grade 1 dysfunction) Pseudonormal (grade 2 dysfunction) Reversible restrictive filling (grade 3 dysfunction) Irreversible restrictive filling…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…size and volume Women Men Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal Normal range Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal Severely abnormal ATRIAL DIMENSIONS LA diameter…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…characterised by an abnormal prolongation of the QT interval on the surface electrocardiogram (ECG), which predisposes the myocardium to a specific form of polymorphic ventricular…

…risk of stroke is explained by formation of thrombi in the left atrial appendage . Such thrombi may leave the appendage and enter the systemic circulation…

…function. The tests that reflect the synthetic function of the liver are the prothrombin time (INR) , the albumin and the bilirubin — and they become abnormal…

…LV aneurysm formation, and reduced LV systolic function. The principal mechanisms are the combination of an abnormal thrombogenic endocardial surface and blood stasis. During the…

…at a rate exceeding that of the sinoatrial (SA) node. This enhanced atrial activity is most commonly attributable to abnormal automaticity or re entry mechanisms…

…as a lubricant that prevents friction during ventricular contraction and relaxation. Pericardial effusion is the presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the pericardial…

…system is crucial for rapid and synchronized activation of the ventricles, conduction defects will typically cause abnormal ventricular activation (i.e. contraction). The significance of…

…complexes are indications of previous myocardial infarction. There are imaging studies demonstrating that QRS fragmentation is more common than the development of pathological Q waves…

…is discharged in the ventricles it will spread partly or entirely outside of the conduction system and thus produce a wide QRS complex (QRS duration …

…abnormal renal/liver function, stroke history, bleeding history, labile INR, age 65, and concomitant drug/alcohol use. Some studies suggest HAS BLED has comparable or…

…Ejection fraction, % 55 45–54 30–44 <30 55 45–54 30–44 <30 2D, Two dimensional. Ejection fraction (EF) Normal Mildly abnormal Moderately abnormal…

…20% of atrial size 4 10 cm² or 20 40% of atrial size 10 cm² or 40% of atrial size Jet orientation central variable excentric…

…Note that 10% of wide complex tachycardias actually originate from the atria but the QRS complexes become wide due to abnormal ventricular depolarization (e.g…

…obstruction of pulmonary blood flow increases RV pressure load and may impair RV filling and forward output. The resulting syndrome may progress to systemic congestion…

…systolic function is depressed or preserved Whether hypotension is present Whether an accessory pathway is suspected, particularly before administration of digoxin The duration of the…

Cardiology Definition and purpose Cardiovascular risk assessment estimates an individual’s probability of experiencing cardiovascular disease (CVD) over a defined period. SCORE2 and SCORE2 Older…

…left ventricular hypertrophy or abnormal LV filling supports the diagnosis Unlike HFpEF, objective evidence of structural or functional cardiac abnormality or raised natriuretic peptides is…

…greater burden of cardiovascular and non cardiovascular comorbidity than patients with reduced EF. Pathophysiology Abnormal ventricular relaxation and increased filling pressures The central hemodynamic abnormality…

…structural or functional abnormalities of the coronary microcirculation. These abnormalities may impair coronary flow reserve (CFR), reduce microcirculatory conductance, or cause abnormal vasoconstriction of coronary…

…to ECG interpretation 1. Which of the following ECG findings is typically considered a normal variant in asymptomatic athletes with no significant family history? A:…

…risk must be considered alongside thromboembolic risk. The HAS BLED score includes hypertension, abnormal renal or liver function, prior stroke, bleeding tendency or previous bleeding…

…as it proves that the ventricles are depolarized rapidly, which in turn implies that the conduction system functions properly. Wide (also referred to as broad)…

…into the following categories: Bradyarrhythmia s (bradycardia): arrhythmias commonly due to dysfunctional automaticity in pacemaker cells or blocking of impulses somewhere along the conduction system…

…or functional dysfunction in the right bundle branch, such that the electrical impulse is blocked. Figure 1 illustrates the components of the ventricular conduction system…

ECG Myocardial ischemia and infarction T wave changes in acute myocardial infarction & ischemia A thorough discussion regarding the physiology of the T wavewas previously provided…

…entirely outside of the ventricular conduction system, and thus the ventricular depolarization is slow (yielding a wide QRS complex). Because the ventricular depolarization is abnormal…

…Evaluation of antiarrhythmic treatment or pacemaker function. Suspected bradyarrhythmia or pauses, particularly at night. Symptom–rhythm correlation in non specific complaints. The choice of recording…

…Pulmonary valve morphology normal normal/abnormal abnormal Density CW Doppler weak, slow deceleration variable dense, steep deceleration, early termination of diastolic flow Jet width colour…

…ATTR CA typically present as heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), and a multitude of clinical symptoms cannot reliably distinguish AL from ATTR CA…